Essential Omega-3 Research Articles

Omega-3 Essential Fatty Acids Modulate Initiation and Progression of Neurodegenerative Disease

The significance of the selective enrichment in omega-3 essential fatty acids in photoreceptors and synaptic membranes of the nervous system has remained, until recently, incompletely understood. While studying mechanisms of cell survival in neural degeneration, we discovered a docosanoid synthesized from unesterified docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) by a 15-lipoxygenase (15-LOX), which we called neuroprotectin D1 (NPD1; 10R,17S-dihydroxy-docosa-4Z,7Z,11E,13E,15E,19Z hexaenoic acid). This lipid mediator is a docosanoid because it is derived from the 22 carbon (22C) precursor DHA, unlike eicosanoids, which are derived from the 20 carbon (20C) arachidonic acid (AA) family member of essential fatty acids. We discovered that NPD1 is promptly made in response to oxidative stress, as a response to brain ischemia-reperfusion, and in the presence of neurotrophins. NPD1 is neuroprotective in experimental brain damage, in oxidative-stressed retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) cells, and in human brain cells exposed to amyloid-beta (Abeta) peptides. We thus envision NPD1 as a protective sentinel, one of the very first defenses activated when cell homeostasis is threatened by imbalances in normal neural function. We provide here, in three sections, recent experimental examples that highlight the specificity and potency of NPD1 spanning beneficial bioactivity during initiation and early progression of neurodegeneration: (1) during retinal signal phototransduction, (2) during brain ischemia-reperfusion, and (3) in Alzheimer's disease (AD) and stressed human brain cell models of AD. From this experimental evidence, we conclude that DHA-derived NPD1 regulation targets upstream events of brain cell apoptosis, as well as neuro-inflammatory signaling, promoting and maintaining cellular homeostasis, and restoring neural and retinal cell integrity.

Omega-3 fatty acids deprivation affects ontogeny of glutamatergic synapses in rats: Relevance for behavior alterations

Essential omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (ω3) are crucial to brain development and function, being relevant for behavioral performance. In the present study we examined the influence of dietary ω3 in the development of the glutamatergic system and on behavior parameters in rats. Female rats received isocaloric diets, either with ω3 (ω3 group) or a ω3 deficient diet (D group). In ontogeny experiments of their litters, hippocampal immunocontent of ionotropic NMDA and AMPA glutamatergic receptors subunits (NR2 A\\B and GluR1, respectively) and the alpha isoform of the calcium-calmodulin protein kinase type II (αCaMKII) were evaluated. Additionally, hippocampal [ 3H]glutamate binding and uptake were assessed. Behavioral performance was evaluated when the litters were adult (60 days old), through the open-field, plus-maze, inhibitory avoidance and flinch-jump tasks. The D group showed decreased immunocontent of all proteins analyzed at 02 days of life (P2) in comparison with the ω3 group, although the difference disappeared at 21 days of life (except for αCaMKII, which content normalized at 60 days old). The same pattern was found for [ 3H]glutamate binding, whereas [ 3H]glutamate uptake was not affected. The D group also showed memory deficits in the inhibitory avoidance, increased in the exploratory pattern in open-field, and anxiety-like behavior in plus-maze. Taken together, our results suggest that dietary ω3 content is relevant for glutamatergic system development and for behavioral performance in adulthood. The putative correlation among the neurochemical and behavioral alterations caused by dietary ω3 deficiency is discussed.

Essential fatty acids for dry eye: A review

Dry eye is a common complaint often encountered in optometric practice. However, it is a difficult condition to treat as clinical signs do not always correlate with patient symptoms. Essential fatty acids (EFA), particularly omega-3 EFA, may be effective in dealing with the underlying causes. A literature review was carried out on the PubMed, ScienceDirect and Ovid databases. Searches included keywords such as 'dry eye', 'essential fatty acids' and 'nutrition' to find articles relating to the treatment of dry eye syndrome (DES) with omega-3 EFAs. Omega-3 and -6 EFAs need to be consumed together within a reasonable ratio to be effective. Currently, typical diets in developed countries lack omega-3 EFA and this results in an overexposure to omega-6. Omega-3 supplementation has an anti-inflammatory effect, inhibiting creation of omega-6 prostaglandin precursors. Omega-3 EFAs also demonstrate anti-inflammatory action in the lacrimal gland preventing apoptosis of the secretory epithelial cells. Supplementation clears meibomitis, allowing a thinner, more elastic lipid layer to protect the tear film and cornea. Dietary supplementation of omega-3 EFA has already proven to be effective in coronary heart disease and arthritis. Safety is not a concern as it works synergistically with omega-6 in the body. Evidence suggests that supplementation with omega-3 EFA may be beneficial in the treatment and prevention of DES.

Classical maple syrup urine disease and brain development: Principles of management and formula design

Branched-chain ketoacid dehydrogenase deficiency results in complex and volatile metabolic derangements that threaten brain development. Treatment for classical maple syrup urine disease (MSUD) should address this underlying physiology while also protecting children from nutrient deficiencies. Based on a 20-year experience managing 79 patients, we designed a study formula to (1) optimize transport of seven amino acids (Tyr, Trp, His, Met, Thr, Gln, Phe) that compete with branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs) for entry into the brain via a common transporter (LAT1), (2) compensate for episodic depletions of glutamine, glutamate, and alanine caused by reverse transamination, and (3) correct deficiencies of omega-3 essential fatty acids, zinc, and selenium widespread among MSUD patients. The formula was enriched with LAT1 amino acid substrates, glutamine, alanine, zinc, selenium, and alpha-linolenic acid (18:3 n − 3). Fifteen Old Order Mennonite children were started on study formula between birth and 34 months of age and seen at least monthly in the office. Amino acid levels were checked once weekly and more often during illnesses. All children grew and developed normally over a period of 14–33 months. Energy demand, leucine tolerance, and protein accretion were tightly linked during periods of normal growth. Rapid shifts to net protein degradation occurred during illnesses. At baseline, most LAT1 substrates varied inversely with plasma leucine, and their calculated rates of brain uptake were 20–68% below normal. Treatment with study formula increased plasma concentrations of LAT1 substrates and normalized their calculated uptakes into the nervous system. Red cell membrane omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and serum zinc and selenium levels increased on study formula. However, selenium and docosahexaenoic acid (22:6 n − 3) levels remained below normal. During the study period, hospitalizations decreased from 0.35 to 0.14 per patient per year. There were 28 hospitalizations managed with MSUD hyperalimentation solution; 86% were precipitated by common infections, especially vomiting and gastroenteritis. The large majority of catabolic illnesses were managed successfully at home using ‘sick-day’ formula and frequent amino acid monitoring. We conclude that the study formula is safe and effective for the treatment of classical MSUD. In principle, dietary enrichment protects the brain against deficiency of amino acids used for protein accretion, neurotransmitter synthesis, and methyl group transfer. Although the pathophysiology of MSUD can be addressed through rational formula design, this does not replace the need for vigilant clinical monitoring, frequent measurement of the complete amino acid profile, and ongoing dietary adjustments that match nutritional intake to the metabolic demands of growth and illness.

Enrichment of omega3 fatty acids fromTyulkaoil by supercritical CO2extraction

BACKGROUND: Supercritical CO2 enrichment of omega3 essential fatty acids (FAs) from Tyulka oil, using a batch process was investigated. Fractional factorial design was applied to evaluate the effects of the five process parameters: pressure (20.26 to 25.33 MPa); temperature (40 to 50 °C); packing fraction (0.5 to 0.7); modifier fraction (2 to 5%); and dynamic time (15 to 25 min), and their binary interactions on the enrichment of extracted omega3 FAs. By employing experimental design and analysis of variance, the variables were evaluated according to the significance of their effect on the yield of extracted omega3. RESULTS: The experimental results confirmed that pressure and dynamic time were the most important factors affecting enrichment of omega3. The amount of modifier in the feed also showed an increasing effect on the response. The binary interaction effects were investigated, and are discussed in detail. CONCLUSION: Optimum conditions were found at 25.33 MPa, 46.65 °C, packing fraction 0.50, modifier 5% and dynamic time 25 min, improving the enrichment of omega3 FAs up to 2.9 times. Copyright © 2009 Society of Chemical Industry

From Fish Oil to Microalgae Oil … A Win-Win Shift for Humans and Our Habitat

Fish oil has been a vital source of essential nutrients in the human diet, and there is growing evidence of its benefit in many of the body’s organ systems. An expanding human population is placing an increasing demand on an already severely depleted supply of fish; therefore, alternative sources of these essential nutrients and creation of sustainable fishing practices are urgently needed to ensure a healthy balance into our future. Vitamin F was a term used in the early 1900s for omega-3 fatty acids, the polyunsaturated fatty acids that humans cannot synthesize and must be consumed in the diet. Fish oils were considered necessary for a balanced diet even though the scientific rationale behind this practice had not been defined. We now know that consumption of both omega-3 and omega-6 essential fatty acids is essential for humanhealth,andalthoughtheexactratiois still debated, it is now believed that the ideal human diet should have approximately three parts omega-6 to one part omega-3 essential fatty acids for optimum balance. 1 Linoleic acid is the main omega-6

Investigation of the constituent fatty acids of some freshwater fishes common in Nigeria

The aim of this paper was to investigate the constituent fatty acids of some freshwater fish species as well as compare the nutritional quality of freshwater fish with that of marine fish by comparing the levels of essential fatty acids present. The fatty acids profile of freshwater fish species include minor amounts of odd-number, branched-chain, and even-number fatty acids as well as saturated components, the monounsaturated fatty acids and polyunsaturated fatty acids. The major saturated fatty acids were C14:0 and C16:0. The C18:1 is the prominent monounsaturated fatty acids while the C18:2 is the dominant polyunsaturated fatty acids. The essential fatty acids compositions showed prominence in C18:3n-3 and C18:2n-6. The overall significance of this study had been its revelation that freshwater fish are good source of omega-6 essential fatty acids. The high percent of saturated fatty acids in freshwater fish gives them an advantage in curing processing.

Systems approach to inflammation resolution: identification of novel anti-inflammatory and pro-resolving mediators.

Using a systems approach to profile self-limited inflammatory exudates, we identified three novel families of lipid-derived mediators, coined the resolvins, protectins and most recently, the maresins that control both the magnitude and duration of inflammation. The mapping of these endogenous resolution circuits provides new avenues to probe the molecular basis of many widely occurring inflammatory diseases. This article focuses on our recent advances on the functional metabolomics of this novel genus of specialized pro-resolving mediators (SPM). SPM include resolvins, protectins and maresins and are biosynthesized from essential omega-3 fatty acid precursors. Each possesses potent multi-pronged actions that proved to be stereoselective with human cells and in animal disease models. Resolvins and protectins are also produced in bone marrow. Together, these findings suggest that defective resolution mechanism(s) may underlie some chronic inflammatory diseases. Moreover, identification of functional SPM biosynthesized during inflammation-resolution indicates that resolution is an active process.

Planning primary prevention of coronary disease

Effective prevention of the current annual $400 billion losses from atherosclerosis and cardiovascular disease (CVD) will require preventing primary causes rather than just decreasing signs and symptoms (risk factors) produced by those causes. All CVD risk factors predict a likelihood of CVD, but not all are causes of CVD. As a result, reducing some health risk assessment biomarkers may not appreciably reduce CVD and death. Careful review of molecular events connecting diets to death identifies two modifiable food imbalances that cause major chronic diseases in Americans. They are 1) imbalance between ingestion and expenditure of food energy, and 2) imbalance between omega-3 and omega-6 essential fatty acid levels in ingested foods. Health insurers could reduce costs and revolutionize preventive health care by monitoring omega-3 and omega-6 proportions in blood fatty acids and by using personalized interactive food choice software to adjust food intakes to fit individual preferences.

Toward optimizing vision and cognition in term infants by dietary docosahexaenoic and arachidonic acid supplementation: A review of randomized controlled trials

The question of whether a dietary supply of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and arachidonic acid (ARA) imparts advantages to visual or cognitive development in term infants has been debated for many years. DHA and ARA are present in human milk, and nursing infants consume these fatty acids needed for rapid synthesis of cell membranes, particularly neural cells. The reported mean DHA and ARA levels of human milk worldwide are 0.32% and 0.47% of total fatty acids, respectively. Prior to 2002 in the US, formula-fed infants did not receive these fatty acids and relied solely on endogenous conversion of the dietary essential omega-3 (n-3) and omega-6 (n-6) fatty acids, α-linolenic and linoleic acids, to DHA and ARA, respectively. Formula-fed infants were found to have significantly less accretion of DHA in brain cortex after death than breastfed infants. Numerous studies have found positive correlations between blood DHA levels and improvements in cognitive or visual function outcomes of breastfed and formula-fed infants. Results of randomized controlled clinical trials of term formula-fed infants evaluating functional benefits of dietary DHA and ARA have been mixed, likely due to study design heterogeneity. A comparison of visual and cognitive outcomes in these trials suggests that dietary DHA level is particularly relevant. Trials with formulas providing close to the worldwide human milk mean of 0.32% DHA were more likely to yield functional benefits attributable to DHA. We agree with several expert groups in recommending that infants receive at least 0.3% DHA, with at least 0.3% ARA, in infant feedings; in addition, some clinical evidence suggests that an ARA:DHA ratio greater than 1:1 is associated with improved cognitive outcomes.

Essential fatty acids, nutritive value and oxidative stability of cold pressed hempseed (Cannabis sativaL.) oil from different varieties

The fatty acid composition, nutritive value and oxidative stability of cold pressed oils, obtained from seven different hemp cultivars, were investigated. The results show that the content of gamma-linolenic acid in the oil depends on the cultivar, ranging from 0.80 to 2.46%. The ratio between essential omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids in the oil was 3.5:1 to 4.2:1, satisfying the demands of modern healthy nutrition regarding lipids. Due to high content of polyunsaturated fatty acids, the oxidative stability of cold pressed hemp oil is poor. The induction period at 100 °C, determined by accelerated oxidative method — Rancimat test, was 6.4 to 7.6 h.

Selective Survival Rescue in 15-Lipoxygenase-1-deficient Retinal Pigment Epithelial Cells by the Novel Docosahexaenoic Acid-derived Mediator, Neuroprotectin D1

The integrity of the retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) cell is essential for the survival of rod and cone photoreceptor cells. Several stressors, including reactive oxygen species, trigger apoptotic damage in RPE cells preceded by an anti-inflammatory, pro-survival response, the formation of neuroprotectin D1 (NPD1), an oxygenation product derived from the essential omega-3 fatty acid family member docosahexaenoic acid. To define the ability of NPD1 and other endogenous novel lipid mediators in cell survival, we generated a stable knockdown human RPE (ARPE-19) cell line using short hairpin RNA to target 15-lipoxygenase-1. The 15-lipoxygenase-1-deficient cells exhibited 30% of the protein expression, and 15-lipoxygenase-2 remained unchanged, as compared with an ARPE-19 cell line control established using nonspecific short hairpin RNA transfected cells. NPD1 synthesis was stimulated by tumor necrosis factor alpha/H2O2-mediated oxidative stress in nonspecific cells (controls), whereas in silenced cells, negligible amounts of NPD1, 12(S)- and 15(S)-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid, and lipoxin A4 were found under these conditions. Neither control nor the deficient cells showed an increase in 15-lipoxygenase-1 protein content after 16 h of oxidative stress, suggesting that the increased activity of 15-lipoxygenase-1 is due to activation of pre-existing proteins. 15-Lipoxygenase-silenced cells also displayed an exacerbated sensitivity to oxidative stress-induced apoptosis when compared with the control cells. NPD1 selectively and potently rescued 15-lipoxygenase-silenced cells from oxidative stress-induced apoptosis. These results demonstrate that 15-lipoxygenase-1 is activated by oxidative stress in ARPE-19 cells and that NPD1 is part of an early survival signaling in RPE cells.

Effects of a diet rich in omega‐3 essential fatty acids on behavior in an attentional task and monoamine transmitter levels in the medial prefrontal cortex of adolescent rats

Omega‐3 essential fatty acids (Ω3‐EFAs) have been suggested as a treatment for depression and ADD. Male adolescent rats were put on a diet balanced 1:1 with Ω3:Ω 6 essential fatty acids (EFAs) or a diet high in Ω6 EFAs acids (25:1 Ω6:Ω 3) from postnatal days 21 to 45. Male adolescent rats were tested in the intradimension/extradimensional attentional set‐shifting (ID/ED) task on days 40‐45 of age. The ID/ED has previously been used only in adult animals. Following completion of the ID/ED, animals were implanted with a 2mm microdialysis probe into the ventral mPFC (vmPFC). After determination of basal levels of norepinephrine (NE), DA and 5‐HT, animals were again run in the ID/ED task. Implantation of a microdialysis probe into the vmPFC did not affect performance in the ID/ED task. Basal levels of NE were higher in the 25:1 dietary group while basal levels of DA and 5‐HT did not differ between groups. Extracellular 5‐HT decreased during the task in the 1:1 dietary group but not in the 25:1 group. These data suggest that a diet rich in omega‐3 EFAs in adolescent rats produces changes in neurotransmitter levels but does not alter attention in an ID/ED task. Supported by EAST and MH074811‐01.

Cognitive and mood effects of 8 weeks' supplementation with 400 mg or 1000 mg of the omega-3 essential fatty acid docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) in healthy children aged 10–12 years

Introduction: Despite media and public expectation of efficacy, no study to date has investigated the cognitive and mood effects of omega 3 supplementation in healthy children.Subjects and methods: This randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel groups pilot study assessed the cognitive and mood effects of either 400 mg or 1000 mg of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) in 90 healthy children aged 10–12 years. Cognitive performance and mood was assessed prior to, and 8 weeks following, commencement of treatment.Results: There was a significant treatment effect on one cognitive measure (speed of word recognition), with the lower dose speeding, and the higher dose slowing, performance. Overall, the pattern of results strongly suggests that this effect was due to chance fluctuations in performance and that the treatments had no consistent or interpretable effect on performance.Conclusions: The results here do not suggest that supplementation with these doses of DHA for 8 weeks has any beneficial effect on brain function in cognitively intact children.

Discrimination Among Geometrical Isomers of α-Linolenic Acid Methyl Ester Using Low Energy Electron Ionization Mass Spectrometry

There is a consensus that electron impact ionization mass spectrometry is not capable of discriminating among geometrical isomers of unsaturated fatty acid methyl esters (and in general olefinic compounds). In this paper, we report the identification of all eight geometrical isomers of alpha-linolenic acid, one of the few essential omega-3 fatty acids that has attracted great attention, using low-energy electron ionization mass spectrometry. Three electron energies 70, 50, and 30 eV were studied and the mass spectrum of each isomer was obtained from the analysis of different concentrations of a standard mixture of alpha-linolenic acid methyl ester geometrical isomers to ensure the robustness of the method. Principal component analysis was employed to model the complex variation of m/z intensities across the isomers. Only using the data of 30 eV energy was complete differentiation among geometrical isomers observed. The unique cleavage pattern of the alpha-linolenic acid methyl ester isomers leading to a benzenium ion structure is discussed and general fragmentation rules are derived using the mass spectra of over 300 compounds with different kinds and levels of unsaturation. Application of the proposed method is not limited to alpha-linolenic acid. It can potentially be used to identify the geometrical isomers of any compounds with an olefinic chain.

Evaluation of lipid profiles and the use of omega-3 essential Fatty Acid in professional football players.

Background:Recent research showed 82% of 233 retired National Football League players under age 50 had abnormal narrowing and blockages in arteries compared to the general population of the same age. It has been suggested that early screening and intervention in this at-risk population be a priority.Hypothesis:Omega-3 essential fatty acid has been shown to improve cardiovascular lipid risk factors and should improve lipid profiles in professional football players to help reduce their recently shown accelerated risk of developing cardiovascular disease.Methods:A total of 36 active national football players were randomly assigned to 2 groups: the first group (n = 20) was provided fish oil capsules (2200 mg of mixed docosahexaenoic acid and eicosapentaenoic acid and 360 mg of other omega-3s), and the second group (n = 16) served as controls during a 60-day trial. Vertical Auto Profile cholesterol tests directly measuring serum low-density lipoprotein, high-density lipoprotein, and other subfractions were performed. Compliance, side effects, and seafood consumption data were also collected. Baseline, midpoint, and poststudy blood work measured plasma docosahexaenoic acid and eicosapentaenoic acid.Results:Treatment increased high-density lipoprotein (average percent change: +25.96, control +14.16), decreased triglycerides treatment (–8.06, control +43.98), very low-density lipoprotein treatment (–13.98, control +23.18), intermediate density lipoprotein (–27.58, control +12.07), remnant lipoproteins (–23.86, control +8.33), and very low-density lipoprotein-3 (–17.10, control +7.77). An average increase of 106.67% for docosahexaenoic acid and 365.82% for eicosapentaenoic acid compared to control was also shown.Conclusion:Omega-3 supplementation significantly improved the lipid profile of active players randomized to treatment. These results suggest that fish oil supplementation is an effective way to increase eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid levels in plasma and should be considered as a method to improve modifiable cardiovascular risk lipid factors in professional football players.Clinical Relevance:A prospective study examining the effects of 60 days of a highly purified fish oil supplementation in professional football players.

Importance of utilization of omega-3 fatty acids in human and animal nutrition

Life of modern people in urban conditions is characterized by lack of movement, which is main condition for maintenance of health, presence of large amount of additives and pesticide residua in food of plant and animal origin and polluted air and water. If the presence of oxidative stress is added as part of normal metabolism occurring during degradation of nutritive substances, when great quantity of free radicals is released, which organism in these conditions often is not capable of neutralizing, the homeostatic mechanisms are disturbed and this leads to health disturbances and even severe illnesses. In such complex living conditions, science is facing the challenge of finding out the way to prevent diseases and slow the aging process using food, primarily basic food stuffs - milk and meat, enriching them with certain substances which are of vital importance to our health. One of the ways is use of functional food which should contain not only its main nutritive value but also such ingredients which have impact on improvement of general health condition, i.e. they have preventive and therapy effect. In this paper, a review of the significance of omega-3 fatty acids in human nutrition is presented. As essential substances they cannot be synthesized in the organism, but have to be introduced through diet. Also, the significance of some essential omega-6 fatty acids as well as their mutual relation, are presented. The role of omega-3 fatty acids in animal nutrition is also pointed out in this paper, introduced or consumed by animals either by grazing or as diet supplement, which influence improvement of their production, reproduction and health performances.

Thiamine and Fatty Acid Content of Lake Michigan Chinook Salmon

Nutritional status of Lake Michigan Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) is inadequately documented. An investigation was conducted to determine muscle and liver thiamine content and whole body fatty acid composition in small, medium and large Chinook salmon. Muscle and liver thiamine concentrations were highest in small salmon, and tended to decrease with increasing fish size. Muscle thiamine was higher in fall than spring in large salmon. The high percentage of Chinook salmon (24–32% in fall and 58–71% in spring) with muscle thiamine concentration below 500 pmol/g, which has been associated with loss of equilibrium and death in other Great Lake salmonines, suggest that Chinook appear to rely less on thiamine than other Great Lakes species for which such low concentrations would be associated with thiamine deficiency (Brown et al. 2005b). A positive correlation was observed between liver total thiamine and percent liver lipids (r = 0.53, P < 0.0001, n = 119). In medium and large salmon, liver lipids were observed to be low in fish with less than 4,000 pmol/g liver total thiamine. In individuals with greater than 4,000 pmol/g liver thiamine, liver lipid increased with thiamine concentration. Individual fatty acids declined between fall and spring. Essential omega-3 fatty acids appear to be conserved as lipid content declined. Arachidonic acid (C20:4n6), an essential omega-6 fatty acid was not different between fall and spring, although the sum of omega-6 (Sw6) fatty acids declined over winter. Elevated concentrations of saturated fatty acids (sum) were observed in whole body tissue lipid. In summary, thiamine, a dietary essential vitamin, and individual fatty acids were found to vary in Lake Michigan Chinook salmon by fish size and season of the year.

The role of inflammation and antiinflammation therapies in keratoconjunctivitis sicca

To review and integrate recent advances in identifying the role of inflammation in the pathogenesis of dry eye conditions and the biological rationale and practical clinical aspects of newer, antiinflammatory theories. A comprehensive literature survey. Keratoconjunctivitis Sicca (KCS) is a multifactorial and complex disorder in which ocular surface inflammations play a central role. Identification of specific CD4-T-Cell pathways and the recent recognition of targeting of alpha-fodrin suggest a case for novel new therapeutic aspects such as anti-CD4 monoclonal antibodies, systemic linoleic and gamma-linolenic acids, and omega-6 essential fatty acids. Replacement of tear volume with nonpreserved wetting agents and standard typical antiinflammatory corticosteroid and/or cyclosporine A continues to be central current conventional therapy for KCS.

Shedding light on the role of poverty in brain development

Shedding light on the role of poverty in brain development