Divine Essence Research Articles

Not a Nevertheless, but a Therefore: Following Philippians 2 with Karl Barth

Abstract This article offers an account of the development of Karl Barth’s interpretation of Phil 2:1–11, from his early commentary on Philippians to his mature reading in §59 of Church Dogmatics IV/1. Philippians 2:1–11 exists at the intersection of two significant loci in Barth studies: one seeking to examine the significance of exegesis in Barth’s theology, and another focusing on Barth’s explication of the command-obedience relationship between the Father and Son in §59 in order to offer insight into the relationship between Trinity and election in Barth. This article finds a major shift in Barth’s exegesis of Phil 2:1–11 in CD II/1. Here, Barth finds in Paul’s “Therefore” (Phil 2:9) indication that the history of Jesus Christ, as narrated by this passage, reveals the essence of divinity. It is argued that when Barth claims in §59 that Christ’s economic obedience must be grounded in his eternal being as Son, he is employing the same interpretive strategy he uses in CD II/1, a strategy which finds its exegetical basis in Paul’s “Therefore” (Phil 2:9).

YHWH in a Suit: Kəbôd YHWH as the Regalia of the Priestly God

Kāḇôḏ in kəḇôḏ YHWH has been translated predominantly with abstract words such as “glory” or “presence” throughout the Hebrew Bible. Some scholars argue that kəḇôḏ YHWH simultaneously marks the divine presence and hides the divine essence. These understandings do not capture the specific function and signification of kəḇôḏ YHWH in the pentateuchal Priestly source (P and H). In P and H, kəḇôḏ YHWH conveys the imagery of radiant, fiery clothing, comparable to Mesopotamian melammu. The deity always appears before the public with kəḇôḏ YHWH, whereas the text never says that the deity meets anyone privately with it. kəḇôḏ YHWH expresses the royal aspect of the deity who requires honor and submission. This understanding of kəḇôḏ YHWH in P reveals that the Priestly God is not abstract, enigmatic, or transcendent.

Enkele teologiese uitdagings rakende diakonia in van die Afrikaanse Suid-Afrikaanse kerke

This article attends to the theological foundation of the diaconate from the missio trinitatis Dei and its implications, especially for the Afrikaans-speaking Reformed churches. The missio Dei, of the Father, Son, and Spirit is directed at the realities of this life. The new heaven and the new earth are not mutually exclusive. The earth is sanctified anew, man has created anew [recreated], and our bodies are raised anew [revived]. This new earth, a new man, and new life come through the merciful dikaiosune of the Father, the diakonia of the Son, and the koinonia of the Holy Spirit. The diaconate and the missionary ministry of the church are caught in the essence of God and therefore belong to the essence of missionary ecclesiology. From the trinitarian perspective, the purpose of the diaconate is described as well as the relationship between the diaconate, the church, and the kingdom. The last part of the article deals with salvation and diaconate and the implications of a trinitarian understanding of the diaconate for the understanding of salvation.Intradisciplinary and/or interdisciplinary implications: This article makes an interdisciplinary contribution to the theological discussion within the Afrikaans-speaking churches from the perspective of systematic and practical theology.

Depicting Deity: A Metatheological Approach

<i>Depicting Deity: A Metatheological Approach</i>

Thomas Aquinas and Contemplation

<i>Thomas Aquinas and Contemplation</i>

Die Unterscheidung zwischen der göttlichen Essenz und der natürlichen Energie Gottes nach Philotheos Kokkinos in seinen zwei Reden über das Taborlicht gegen Akindynos

"This article explores the elaboration of the distinction between the divine essence and the essential energies of God in the two Orations on the Light of Tabor by Philotheos Kokkinos, directed against Gregory Akindynos and the Akindynists. Herein it is shown that Kokkinos follows a well thought out process of philosophizing when dealing with those dimensions of oikonomia (the activity of God in the world) that correspond directly to the realm of what is, par excellence, theologia (or God in himself). Within this framework, Kokkinos correctly formulates the main theses that provoked the opposition of the Akindynists to the distinction between the divine essence and the essential energies of God. These main points are elaborated through the coining of formulae (quite faithful to the authentic teaching of Gregory Palamas) that are occasionally more precise than the formulations of Palamas himself. Moreover, Kokkinos deals with the conceptual and practical dimensions of the distinction between the essence and the essential energies, without, however, exceeding the limits of the logic contemporary to him. Keywords: God’s essence, essential energy, difference between essence and energy, definition of the difference, systematic hesychasm, Philotheos Kokkinos, Gregorios Palamas, Georgios Scholarios "

“THE SERMON ΟΝ LAW AND GRACE”: A MODEL OF REFUTATIONAL - PROBATIVE ARGUMENTATION

The author of the paper analyzed the models of refutational and probative argumentation in an outstanding piece of Kyivan Rus’ literature of the 11th century — “The Sermon on Law and Grace” by metropolitan Hilarion of Kyiv. Although certain aspects of the work have already been properly analyzed, the formal rhetorical principles of polemical argumentation in “The Sermon on Law and Grace” remain little studied. The construction of the argument itself and compositional regularities of its structural organization still need due consideration. Throughout the entire reflection, moving from one topic to another, the author of “The Sermon…” maintains the same principle of literary presentation — dialectical oratio. This model is based on a special dialectical reasoning rooted in the principle of antinomies and originated in ancient judicial rhetoric. In “The Sermon on Law and Grace”, the dialectical oratio is built according to the ‘refutation + proof’ scheme. That is, the author initially refutes something and then proves something. Τhis rhetorical tendency is used throughout the work. Hilarion constantly tries to expose and devalue something characterized as outdated, related to Old Testament, Jewish or pagan, and glorify the new, evangelical, and Christian. However, denying one thing and affirming the other do not exhaust the author’s goal. Such dialectical unity of the negative and the affirmative in characterization of one object not only goes back to the traditions of ancient judicial rhetoric but also reflects the Eastern Christian theological tradition. Something similar can be seen in the treatises by Dionysius the Areopagite. In the works “On Mystical Theology”, “On Divine Names”, and “On the Heavenly Hierarchy”, Dionysius the Areopagite derives a complex antinomic system of symbolic designations of the Divine Essence, qualifying a part of them as apophatic (dissimilar) and the other part as kataphatic (similar). Perhaps, the reasoning model of refutatio + probatio in ancient rhetoric, the apophatic-cataphatic principle of determining the names of God in the “Corpus Areopagiticum”, and refutational-probative argumentation in “The Sermon on Law and Grace” are formal links of a general rhetorical oratory chain. However, this issue requires a more thorough study based on a wide range of literary material, including ancient, biblical, medieval, etc.

Scientia propter quid nobis—The Epistemic Independence of Metaphysics and Theology in the Quaestio de cognitione Dei attributed to Duns Scotus by Wouter Goris

Reviewed by: Scientia propter quid nobis—The Epistemic Independence of Metaphysics and Theology in the Quaestio de cognitione Dei attributed to Duns Scotus by Wouter Goris Claus A. Andersen GORIS, Wouter. Scientia propter quid nobis—The Epistemic Independence of Metaphysics and Theology in the Quaestio de cognitione Dei attributed to Duns Scotus. Münster: Aschendorff, 2022. viii + 296 pp. Paper, € 49.00 The central claim of Wouter Goris's new book is that the Quaestio de cognitione Dei traditionally (both in one late medieval manuscript and in some modern scholarship) attributed to John Duns Scotus not only is inauthentic but in fact represents an early reaction against Scotus's teaching on the scientific nature of metaphysics. The Quaestio in particular explores Scotus's distinction between a science "in itself" and one "for us" and, going beyond Scotus's own doctrine, shows how this distinction is applicable to metaphysics. The book is divided into three parts. Part 1 offers a critical edition of the Quaestio de cognitione Dei, which has hitherto been available in a plain transcription published by C. R. S. Harris in 1927. Harris's text was based on a single manuscript from the fifteenth century (Oxford, Merton College, Ms. 90); Goris bases his edition on a manuscript from the early fourteenth century (Assisi, Biblioteca Comunale, Ms. 172), one that does not attribute the text to Scotus. Goris highlights that the text has significant parallels in the prologue of John of Reading's Scriptum on the first book of the Sentences; there is presently not sufficient evidence for claiming that Reading is the author of the De cognitione Dei, but it does seem clear that either Reading or some other Franciscan friar relying on Reading's Scriptum authored the text between 1316 and 1325. The Quaestio itself consists of two articles. Two appendices to the edition document longer passages from Reading's Scriptum. Part 2 investigates the use of the distinction between a science in itself and one for us in Duns Scotus and some of the early Scotists. Scotus's doctrine developed over time. At Oxford Scotus taught that theology in se is about the divine essence in its particularity; theology for us is about the most perfect concept of God attainable for human beings by natural means, that is, the concept "infinite being." It falls to metaphysics to prove that there is such a kind of being. At Paris Scotus rather taught that both theology in se and theology for us are about the divine essence in its [End Page 549] particularity. The implication is that a strictly demonstrative science about God is possible for human beings in this present life, a knowledge of God that is completely independent of metaphysics. Goris argues that this shift in the view of theology explains the absence of Scotus's famous "twin doctrines" of the univocal concept of being and of being as the first adequate object of the intellect from his theological epistemology of the Parisian period. Not too surprisingly, in the wake of Scotus we find several authors grappling with the relationship between theology and metaphysics. The positions investigated by Goris vary considerably. Richard of Conington distinguishes between human metaphysical knowledge of being and God's own metaphysical knowledge of being; the latter represents a more perfect knowledge of both God himself and creatures as included under the concept of being. Francis of Marchia employs a distinction between a general metaphysics (about being as being) and a special metaphysics (about divine being), but on the level of science for us the special part of metaphysics is subordinated to the general one. Nicolas Bonetus, by contrast, advocates a sharp distinction between metaphysical knowledge of being and natural theology; he structures his metaphysics as a purely ontological discipline and treats natural theology as a separate science; Goris sees this reorganization as Bonetus's most decisive contribution to the history of metaphysics. Part 3 analyzes the fundamental doctrines defended in the Quaestio de cognitione Dei and compares them with those of Scotus and John of Reading. The first article of the Quaestio introduces two important distinctions, the first of which is between metaphysics in itself and metaphysics for us; these two...

Про використання образу Сковороди та його філософських поглядів в ідеологічних побудовах представників української діаспори ІІ половини ХХ ст.

The article is dedicated to the consideration of the use of Skovoroda’s image in ideological discourse by representatives of the Ukrainian diaspora (D. Dontsov, V. Shaian, M. Shlemkevych). The usual presence of the symbolized figure of Skovoroda in the Ukrainian identity leads to its further use in the system of national ideologies. The creator of the ideology of “active” nationalism, D. Dontsov, interprets the figure of Skovoroda as the bearer of the ideals of the higher “caste” in the conditions of the decline of political and spiritual life in Ukraine in the second half of the 18th century. The creator of the neo-religion of nativism, V. Shaian, sacralizes the person of the philosopher, endowing him with the status of a prophet, which is directly related to the only divine essence – the “highest light”. For the philosopher M. Shlemkevych Skovoroda marks the end situation: the end of the era of Cossack autonomy and the full incorporation of Ukrainian lands into the Russian Empire. Skovoroda’s way of life symbolizes the type of people who escape from real life into spirituality. In general, in the ideological constructions of the authors considered by us, the image of Skovoroda is constructed not so much on the basis of an appeal to primary sources: the philosopher’s texts or the memories of the philosopher’s contemporaries about his lifestyle, but on the basis of his previous images, and here his “Ukrainianness” is the main one. Skovoroda is only a “Ukrainian philosopher” and it was on the basis of this that it was constructed already at the beginning of the 20th century. The image and its further elaboration in the ideological discourse of later times take place. The presence of the image of Skovoroda in the structures of Ukrainian national self-consciousness and stereotyped knowledge about his philosophical views is quite stable: the idea of “two natures”, the doctrine of “three worlds”, the principle of “kinship work” also leads to their further “exploitation” in the texts of Dontsov, Shayan and Shlemkevych

Theosis : Salvation as Transformation

This paper aims to explore some of the basic tenets of the Eastern idea of theosis and to try an assessment. The Orthodox theologians hold that theosis has a strong biblical basis. The Petrine passage about our becoming “participants in the divine nature” is understood as meaning that although Christ alone is God by nature, all people are called to become God “by participation.” In the Orthodox theological tradition, the doctrinal basis of man’s deification is found in the hypostatic unity between the divine and the human nature in Christ. Though fully man, Christ does not possess a human hypostasis, which implies that Jesus’ hypostasis has a fundamental affinity with all human personalities. Human persons are called to participate in the deified humanity of Christ’s and to share in its deification. The Orthodox distinction between the divine essence and the divine energies enable the Eastern Church to affirm the possibility of a direct or mystical union between man and God, but at the same time we exclude any pantheistic identification between the two. Also the Orthodox theologians emphasize that a person becomes the perfect image of God by discovering his or her likeness to God, which is the perfection of the nature common to all human beings. While the Western doctrines of sin and salvation have been dominated by legal, juridical and forensic categories, the Byzantine doctrine of theosis clearly shows that salvation is transformation, not simply remissions of sins. Salvation means our being united with God. To be saved is to be one with the Father through the Son in the power of the Holy Spirit. The Orthodox doctrine of theosis has a strong point that it is a more positive concept than ‘remissions of sins,’ or ‘satisfaction,’ which, I believe, may have a corrective value in regard to the ‘forensic’ characteristics of Western soteriologies.

The dialogue role in improving the mental image of Muslims in non-Muslim societies.

The research has tried to contribute to find solutions to the problem of the distorted stereotyped thought about Islam and Muslims among non-Islamic ,especially the Western societies, by studying this phenomenon, which has come to be known as “Islamophobia” .This phenomenon has caused the formation of a negative perception of Islam in the majority of those societies as an extremist religion that urges violence and conveys terrorism to all the people around the world, and its followers are the most reactionary and backward societies. Consequently ,this concept has created barriers that prevented those societies from knowing the truth of Islam, and its divine essence and its humantarian nature that is rich in great values, which contribute to strengthening security ,peace and prosperity in the world. The research has concluded that there are two main reasons for the emergence of this phenomenon, one is internal; which is related to the behavioral deviation of some Muslims from the values and teachings of Islam ,which has gave a negative impression about Islam as a religion and Muslims as a nation. Moreover,it cases of civilizational backwardness, wars, and political, economic and social problems experienced by most Arab and Islamic societies. The other reason is external. It is related to the systematic campaigns that many western circles make them, led by the Orientalists, and the Christian Zionists lobbies, which have tried to describe Islam to their regimes and societies as a flood that wants to invade their countries. And that Islam is a bloody,exclusive religion. So, this wrong thought has created a state of phobia and fear of Islam in those societies. Shortly ,It requires various efforts to amend this wrong thought about Islam in those societies, the most important of which is dialogue at all its intellectual, cultural, political levels and fields through which it is possible to improve the image of Islam and Muslims and create the suitable atmosphere for the delivery of the pure message of Islam to all human societies. This contributes to alleviate the cases of hatred, aggression and racial discrimination against Muslims, especially the Islamic communities and Islamic minorities.

В чем состоит реальность необходимой и вечной истины? Метафизический спор теологов-иезуитов в середине XVII в.

The article is a study of the metaphysical dispute about the reality of necessary and eternal truths that took place among the leading Spanish Jesuits during the heyday of the scholastic tradition of the Society of Jesus in the middle of the 17th century. The traditional scholastic problem of “eternal truths” concerning essences of creatures and their possible existence, was radically reformulated thanks to the theological “innovations” of A. Pérez, who argued that the only verificativum (or foundation of reality) of any necessary truths is the very essence of God. This caused a furious polemical reaction on the part of S. Izquierdo, who proposed his own solution to this problem within the framework of his own original ontology of “status rerum” (especially the quidditative status) from the position of superrealism. The followers of Pérez, in turn, persistently opposed the "extremes" of Izquierdo's position. First, we briefly explicate the concept of "necessary and eternal truth" in Peripatetic tradition and give a historical overview of the time and place of this dispute, pointing to the main works in which the metaphysicians and theologians of the Society who participated in it formulated their positions. Secondly, we explicate the Pérezian thesis about God as the foundation of the necessity and reality of eternal truths on the example of an early treatise on the "possibility of creatures" by Gaspar de Ribadeneira (1653). Thirdly, we detail and analyze Izquierdo's criticism of this position in Disputation 10 of his Pharus scientiarum (1659). Fourthly, we present Izquierdo's own doctrine of the “quidditative status of things” or absolute necessary objective truths, and also explain his understanding of the necessity and eternity of such truths. In addition, we analyze how exactly he solves the key problem for his ontology – the problem of distinction and separability of the quidditative and existential status of a thing. Finally, we analyze the criticism of Izquierdo's position in the metaphysics of Antonio Bernaldo de Quirós (1666), pointing out the specifics of his argumentation and its theological and philosophical motives.

ВИТОКИ ФІЛОСОФСЬКОГО ДИСКУРСУ В ЄВРЕЙСЬКІЙ ДУХОВНІЙ ТРАДИЦІЇ XII СТОЛІТТЯ

The article explores the nuances of interpreting Jewish philosophy, tracing its origins to the works of Saadiy Gaon. We drew attention to the reinterpretation of the female aspect of the Divine essence (Shehina) and highlighted the main characteristics of its philosophical treatment. It delves into the distinctive features of Jewish philosophy as presented in the writings of Maimonides, emphasizing the interconnectedness of theological and philosophical reflections in his work. The abstract also provides an overview of Maimonides' key approach to understanding Hagadic and Halachic literature. The nomination of some female images in Haggadic legends (King's daughter, bride, princess) is outlined. The given list will serve for further feminist studies, and in the 20th century it will be used within the framework of Reform Judaism to justify the right of women to be rabbis. One notable divergence between Jewish philosophy and Talmudic interpretations lies in the former's focus on specific thematic directions, aligning with the philosophy of falsafa (Arabic/Muslim Aristotelianism). The midrash method, an interpretive model of biblical texts, plays a pivotal role in this thematic distinction, influencing the interpretation of individual concepts. The article discusses how the application of philosophical school approaches to Jewish philosophy takes on a unique character, ushering in a fresh perspective on the normative aspects of religious practices. Special attention is devoted to the reconstruction of Rambam's views in his 'Guide of the Perplexed,' particularly in relation to the relationship between the Absolute Beginning and the fulfillment of spiritual tradition precepts, which carry a theurgical essence. Moreover, it is argued that a person's virtues are intimately tied to their spiritual, moral, and intellectual perfection, aligning with the sacred texts. Jewish philosophers unanimously affirm that personal virtues represent the pinnacle of a complete individual. As philosophical interpretations of biblical texts evolved, the need to elucidate the moral teachings of Judaism (Musar) gained prominence. Among the main thematic layers of Musar, the emphasis is on interpersonal relationships in the family and community. Coordinated roles of parents and subordinate responsibilities in the community ensure the process of Shchina's return to the world. The implementation of divine justice forms a just society with equally protected rights and equally fulfilled obligations of men and women. This goal was achieved through the works of Maimonides and his followers, as well as through polemics with representatives of multi confessional environments.

Gayr Kavramının Dilsel ve Istılahî Anlamları ve Klasik Kelâmın İlâhî Sıfatlar Anlayışına Etkileri

Some writers have suggested that the classical Sunni kalām theory of divine attributes, which states that the attributes are 'neither God' nor 'other than God,' should be interpreted to mean a denial of the law of excluded middle. Some also seek to build a new kalām without such a principle. Although the author holds such a view to be unintelligible on its own grounds, it also has no basis in the classical kalām theory. This paper shall present a detailed investigation into the meaning of ghayr, and demonstrate, with ample textual evidence, that the classical theory of divine attributes only means a denial of identity along with the denial of metaphysical separability from the divine essence. This paper demonstrates how the term ghayr applies in contexts of metaphysics, theology, and natural philosophy as well. The formula that ‘something is not identical with’ nor ‘other than’ is applied equally to any property of a subject which is necessary and inseparable from it. That is, it applies equally to created beings as well. The paper shall begin with a linguistic discussion of the term ghayr, in order to demonstrate that it is not a negation in the Arabic language, but actually an adjective which also functions to form an exceptive clause. This proves that the formula on the divine attributes does not imply a rejection of excluded middle even at the basic linguistic level. Then the paper will discuss the term ghayr in technical contexts. This discussion does not limit itself to any school, but the discussion is based on four main sources: (1) the Maqālāt of al-Kaʿbī of the Muʿtazilī school; (2) the Maqālāt of al-Ashʿarī, (3) the Kitāb al-Tawḥīd and (4) the Taʾwīlāt of al-Māturīdī. Much attention is given to the latter because of claims by some that Māturīdī has a unique position on ghayriyya which implies the rejection of the law of excluded middle. There is no indication at all that such a formula implied a denial of the laws of logic. Claims to the contrary have failed to provide any linguistic or textual evidence for their interpretation, let alone philosophical justification for such a farfetched view.

Neoplatonism and Byzantine Patristics: The Relationship of Plotinus’ Concept of the Triad and the Christian Doctrine of the Holy Trinity

Traces the continuity of the ideas of Neoplatonism in Greek-Byzantine Patristics in the process of developing the orthodox doctrine of the Holy Trinity by the Church Fathers. The author emphasizes commonalities and distinctions in Neoplatonism and Christianity. Plotinus’ concept of the triad, the One - the Intellect - the Soul, is considered with a focus on the analysis of Plotinus’ ideas regarding the One as Deity and the Origin of the world. The process of emanation of the Neo-platonic trinity hypostasis and its connection through the World Soul with the material world is highlighted. The formation of the dogma of the Holy Trinity in classical Eastern (Greek-Byzantine) Patristics is presented in comparison with Neoplatonism. The ideas of Arius and Arianism, which also absorbed Neoplatonism, but created a theology of a different, unorthodox persuasion, are considered. The provisions of Athanasius of Alexandria, a representative of classical Patristics, on the Holy Trinity and Arius are compared. The creative perception of Plotinus’ conceptual positions in the works of St. Athanasius is presented and their difference is analyzed. In particular, the concepts of the One, the Intellect, and the Soul of Plotinus and St. Athanasius’ understanding of God the Father, the Son of God and the Holy Spirit are considered. The peculiarity of the emergence and existence of the hypostases in Plotinus’ triad in the dialectical process of successive emanation is highlighted. The existence of the hypostases in the triadic dogma of Christianity is shown as the same in being (homoousion) of the three Persons of the Trinity united by a single divine essence. The theological interpretation of the intra-divine life of the Trinity and its philosophical-religious expression in the categories “unborn” (Father), “begotten” (Son of God), “proceeding from the Father” (Holy Spirit) are revealed. The concepts of emanation (Neoplatonism) and proceeding (Patristics) are compared.

A Perspectival Reading of Spinoza's Essence-Existence Distinction

AbstractThis article examines the essence-existence distinction in Spinoza's theory of modes. This distinction is commonly made in two ways. First, essence and existence are separated by cause. Essences are understood to follow vertically from the essence of God, while existence follows horizontally from other modes. I present textual and systematic arguments against such a causal bifurcation. Second, essence and existence are distinguished by their temporal nature. Essence is eternal. Existence is durational. However, in several passages, Spinoza writes that eternity and duration constitute two ways of understanding nature rather than two really distinct aspects of nature.

АБАЙ ҚҰНАНБАЕВ ПЕН ШӘКӘРІМ ҚҰДАЙБЕРДИЕВТІҢ РУХАНИ БІРЛІГІ

The article deals with the features of poetics of Abay and Shakarim, the contribution of poets to development of the Kazakh poetry, poetic features of their verses, poems and prosaic works. The beauty of their words and verses are connected with deep reflections about an essence of god, human and life. Both poets bring a huge contribution in creation of philosophical poetry. Shakarim’s outlook and his views are the logical continuation of Abay’s poetry. At the same time Kazakh poetical art is enriched with new forms, word combinations and song patterns. The versatile beauty of Kazakh poetry is exposed in their creative activity in full.

Descartes’s argument for modal voluntarism

ABSTRACT Descartes famously espouses modal voluntarism, the doctrine that God freely creates the eternal truths. God has chosen to make it true that two plus two equals four, for instance, but he could have chosen otherwise. Why, though, does Descartes endorse modal voluntarism? Many commentators have noted that he regularly appeals to divine omnipotence to justify his doctrine. This strategy is usually thought to be unsuccessful, however, because it seems to presuppose—question-beggingly—that the eternal truths are in the scope of God’s power. This paper argues that Descartes’s appeal to divine omnipotence has more going for it than meets the eye. Like many other medieval and early modern philosophers, Descartes assumes that God has the power to control everything that remains unfixed by his own essence. At the same time, though, he denies that the eternal truths are fixed by, or grounded in, the divine essence. The combination of these two commitments leads to modal voluntarism. The paper also argues that the Principle of Sufficient Reason (PSR) may play an important role in the reasoning that leads Descartes to endorse modal voluntarism. This is surprising, given that the PSR appears to be deeply at odds with modal voluntarism.

G. SKOVORODA’S PHILOSOPHICAL WORK IN ASPECT OF MORAL IMPROVEMENT OF MAN

G. Skovoroda’s creative work includes many contradictory teachings that originate in ancient and early Christian philosophy, but it is still clear to us that the leading idea of his work is the theme of man, his moral being. G. Skovoroda builds his ideal of a person who has common features with an ancient ideal. The teaching of a philosopher about two natures, which are the basis of the worlds he defined, namely, macrocosm, that is, the universe, microcosm, as projections of the universe, which is a man and a symbolic world that is a Bible for him – resembles the cosmic logos of ancient Greeks with an invisible nature that identifies with God. It appears as a worldwide mind and the law that organize the world, so in the understanding of the philosopher to live in harmony with God means to live in harmony with nature, to find the harmony of the inner world. An important issue for the philosopher is understanding and highlighting the problem of human happiness, which, according to the thinker, can be achieved through the moral improvement of man. The philosopher interprets human life as moral activity, introduces the concept of “related” work, which is based on natural gifts of a person: “if he does work without putting his heart into it he will never be a success”, but if a person lives according to Nature’s law he will certainly be happy [4, p. 11]. The philosopher turns to the Stoic Philosophy and the Bible, which defined his philosophical position – identifying philosophy with ethics, and his task is considered to teach a person to maintain peace of mind in a changing world. Divine will makes a person act in accordance with moral laws, that is how a person can find peace of mind. To build a harmonious relationship with the world, it is important for man to know his nature, self-knowledge. The divine law contained in the Bible, the philosopher believes, encourages man to moral actions. According to the thinker, the knowledge of the symbolic world of the Bible comes through the heart. The figuratively-symbolic world of the Bible cannot be known literally, by reason, it can be understood only by heart. The heart gives the opportunity to distinguish between good and evil, for G. Skovoroda the heart of man is an area of constant struggle of good and evil: “…all worlds consist of two entities: evil and good” [8, p. 154]. G. Skovoroda’s symbolic philosophy has common features with ancient teachings, his symbol images often have several meanings, but he never tried to break the material and spiritual world, but always tried to see spiritual in the material, that is why the symbol of “true” man is formed in the microcosm through a spiritual appeal to God. In his figurative and symbolic worldview every element of the outside world corresponds to the internal and external essence, form and matter, and the main purpose of man, as the thinker believed, is the knowledge of the inner essence of the world in which the truth is hidden “of two entities two thoughts and two hearts: perishable and unperishable, pure and unclean, dead and alive” [8, p. 145]. As L. Ushkalov noted, G. Skovoroda in his works appears to be a philosopher and theologian first of all, he is characterized by a combination of “poetry, philosophy, theology and religious mystical entertainments”, his symbolic way of philosophizing caused “many different, sometimes completely opposite, reasoning and sentences”[11, p. 35-36]. G. Skovoroda’s doctrine is a model of symbolic worldview, the philosopher tried to unite the inner and external human nature, and the divine essence of man can be got not only by mind, but also it can be felt with the heart. Self-knowledge, self-absorption, life in harmony with nature, says the philosopher, provides peace of mind. Realizing the need for self-knowledge, he tries to find the answer to the main questions of ethics, namely, through the specificity of the small world, that is a person, he understands the spiritual foundations of being, outlines his moral and ethical dimensions, considers good and evil, points the path to a “true” person. G. Skovoroda offers the way of moral improvement of man through self-knowledge, following the nature, which will allow man to know himself and turn to God.

PLURALITAS MAKHLUK DAN KEESAAN KHALIK: MEMBANGUN PERADABAN DIATAS PERADABAN

The plurality of creatures is sunnatullah in this universe. The plurality of creatures is a manifestation of Allah's omnipotence over His creation, and the grace that Allah SWT has sent down to His creatures. With the plurality of creatures that Allah SWT created, the lives of creatures become dynamic and not stagnant because these creatures compete with each other to do their best. The plurality of beings is a necessity. Diversity in creatures is something that is possible al-Manifest while the unity of God is something that must be al-Manifest. Whereas monotheism is the basic principle of divine religion, because every time Allah swt sends apostles, the mission of monotheism is always his message. The meaning of holding monotheism is not just faith or belief in Allah SWT, but also includes a correct understanding of who Allah SWT we believe in and how we behave towards Him and objects other than Allah SWT. Allah SWT is the regulator of all creatures, not only the Creator of this form, but also as the Regulator, His arrangement is the entrance for the protection and guidance for humans. Islamic teachings about humans as the caliph of Allah SWT and the teachings of the Divine Essence as the Ruler of the being created by Him.