Espionage Activities Research Articles

Cyber intelligence and international security. Breaking the legal and diplomatic silence?

ABSTRACT In cyberspace intelligence agencies, rather than militaries, are the most prominent security actors. However, many cyber operations conducted by intelligence agencies are not ‘classic’ espionage activities, but may be best described as digital covert action (sabotage, subversion, information operations). Given the fact that international law and diplomacy traditionally do not address espionage, cyber operations conducted by intelligence agencies have developed in a legal grey zone that gets stretched by the behaviour of the intelligence agencies of the most brazen cyber powers. The digital age has significantly transformed the capabilities and the role of intelligence agencies, which raises the question if the traditional international consensus that ‘intelligence is not discussed’ is still useful in state-to-state relations. The theoretically underdefined role and activities of intelligence agencies are affected by four big changes in the digital age: increase in scale of their activities and effects, heightened ambiguity, massive expansion of the attack surface and trickle-down insecurity, which point to a need to rethink how cyber intelligence agencies should operate. Some states will continue to push the boundaries of what is possible in cyberspace, unless other states break with the legal and diplomatic silence to discuss ‘guardrails’ to cyber intelligence activities.

The Evolution of China's Cyber-Espionage Tactics: From Traditional Espionage to AI-Driven Cyber Threats against Critical Infrastructure in the West

Purpose: This article critically investigates the evolution of China’s cyber-espionage strategies, specifically illustrating the shift from traditional espionage methodologies to the incorporation of advanced technologies, particularly artificial intelligence (AI). This transition profoundly reshapes global power dynamics, delineating nuanced threats to critical infrastructure in Western nations, including power grids, financial systems, and communication networks (Wang et al., 2019). Materials and Methods: Utilizing a theoretical framework grounded in Joseph Nye's concept of soft power and contemporary security studies, this research posits a hypothesis: there exists a positive correlation between technological advancements and the escalation of espionage activities by state actors. The inquiry encompasses a comprehensive analysis of key components, such as vulnerabilities, adaptive strategies, geopolitical implications, deterrence mechanisms, and international collaboration, thereby illuminating the multifaceted risks to national security inherent in the digital age (Nye, 2004). Findings: The study critically evaluates the countermeasures undertaken by Western countries, probing strategic enhancements of cyber defences and the formation of international coalitions aimed at collective security (Huang et al., 2021). The findings reveal substantial obstacles in achieving a cohesive and effective response to the rapidly escalating and pervasive nature of contemporary cyber threats (Zhang et al., 2020). Implications to Theory, Practice and Policy: Considering the ongoing maturation of China’s cyber capabilities, characterized by an increased reliance on AI and the impending advent of quantum computing, the article advocates for a comprehensive revaluation of global security practices (Mann et al., 2020). It underscores the imperative for Western nations to not only innovate defensively but to also adopt proactive measures and foster significant international collaboration. This multifaceted approach is essential to address the complex challenges posed by state-sponsored cyber operations within an increasingly interconnected global landscape (Chen et al., 2021).

唐宋史料筆記에 보이는 ⾼句麗 관련 기록 연구

Historical texts are classified into public and private sources. Public sources, represented by the Chinese canonical histories officially compiled by the respective dynasties, have played an important role in overcoming data limitations in the study of Korean ancient history. However, relatively little attention has been paid to private sources, including historical notes. Historical notes written by intellectuals contain a great deal of historical information. In recognition of their historical value, China has long categorized and published such materials under the name of “Historical Notes”. Among them, the “Historical Notes of the Tang and Song Dynasties” published by the China Book Bureau is highly authoritative. Focusing on this book, this study identified 42 articles related to Goguryeo from a total of 60 texts. The identified Goguryeo-related articles have some overlap with the existing materials of the public sources represented by the canonical histories. However, considering that many of them were compiled before the “Old Book of Tang” and the “New Book of Tang”, their historical value is not insignificant. Moreover, even if they are the same, most of them have slight differences in words and phrases. The historical notes contain a wide range of information, including data on the wars between Goguryeo and Tang, the lives of the Goguryeo people who migrated to Tang after the fall of Goguryeo, and the views of the Tang and Song dynasties on the Goguryeo people. In particular, this study has identified several new materials in “Chaoye Jinzai,” “Minghuangzalu,” and several others that have never been found in the canonical histories. Examples include Goguryeo’s espionage activities in China’s interior before the fall of Goguryeo and a belt worn by the king of Goguryeo that was taken from Goguryeo during the fall of Goguryeo. The materials found in the historical notes are expected to contribute to further research on the history of Goguryeo.

THE EVOLUTION OF CZECHIA’S SECURITY POLICY UNDER THE INFLUENCE OF THE RUSSIA-UKRAINE WAR

For now, almost all spheres of international life are in the process of transformation. A particularly high level of turbulence characterizes European security, which has faced numerous challenges over the past decade such as the migration crisis, terrorist acts, the COVID-19 pandemic, information threats, etc. Directly threatening the European Union’s eastern borders, Russia’s full-scale invasion has become one of the most crucial security challenges. In this regard, the EU and NATO member states have to review their approaches to ensuring security and stability. Due to Czechia’s membership in both of these blocs and its geographical proximity to a war zone, its security policy has undertaken changes at the current stage, which this article covered.This article defines the reasons for the evolution of the security policy of the Czech Republic. It is worth noting that due to its geographic proximity to the war zone, Czechia perceives Russia’s aggression as a direct threat to its national security. Apart from Russia’s full-scale invasion of Ukraine, the assessment of Russia’s perception of the country is influenced by the Russian military intelligence services’ involvement in the explosions at Czech weapons warehouses in 2014 and Russia’s espionage activities as well. Thus, the increasing regional tensions and the political crisis in international relations prompted the Czech Republic to revise its key security and defense files, according to which Russia and China have been defined as the main security threats.Moreover, the author concludes that support for Ukraine became part of Czechia’s security policy, where the country demonstrated its clear position and declared its intention to sign a security agreement with Ukraine. Also, it is necessary to commend the importance of Czechia’s artillery shells initiative to Ukraine. The Czech Republic has taken several practical steps to respond to security threats increasing its defense spending to 2% of GDP and investments in the defense industry, along with modernizing the military forces and diversifying energy resources in order to get rid of Russia’s dependence. Accordingly, a comprehensive approach to reacting to new security challenges and threats can minimize their impact on Czechia’s security in the future.

Financial Support of the Kazakhs to Türkiye in the First World War

The First World War significantly influenced the destinies of numerous peoples, nations, empires, and states throughout human history. The Ottoman Empire emerged as a major participant in this global conflict, engaging on multiple fronts against the Entente States. During the war, Türkiye conducted various political, military, intelligence, and espionage activities. Among these, the Ottoman Empire incited Muslim populations in the East to join in a religious war against the Entente States. Notably, religious and propaganda efforts were undertaken in Turkestan as part of the Pan-Islamist ideology among the Turkic-Muslim peoples under Russian rule. Conversely, the Turkic-Muslim peoples of Turkestan provided various forms of support to the Turks, including financial assistance from the Kazakhs. This study aims to examine the financial aid extended by the Kazakhs to the Turks during the war, conducting a historical analysis of the reasons, development, and outcomes of this support. The analysis delves into the motivations behind Kazakh financial aid to the Turks, its evolution over time, and its impact on the war effort. By exploring these aspects, we gain insights into the complex dynamics of support networks during the First World War.

Towards a Framework for Analysing Complex Interdependence in Digital Espionage Markets

Cyber power indices have dominated discourse in recent years as measuring the relative power of nation-states in cyberspace to exercise their cyber capabilities for offensive and defensive purposes. These indices adapt a variety of methodologies, but their effectiveness in mobilising cyber power remains limited. Indices based on dynamic systems frameworks explain power consolidation arising from network-effects, but are too broad to implement due to complexity. In this article, we analyse cyber power through access to digital espionage capabilities, using the theory that states weaponise complex interdependence of information flows. Instead of proposing an index, we set up a case study contrasting the Chinese system, where the state mediates technology vulnerabilities, with the Five Eyes system, where vulnerability disclosures are a common occurrence. The Chinese system exhibits a “chokepoint” effect, in contrast to the Five Eyes’ “panopticon” mediation of information flows. Extant cyber espionage analyses range over themes such as economic vis-a-vis open and closed vulnerability markets; legal, in relation to the circulation of tools like spyware; or strategic and case-based. Given this confluence, we posit a framework of information flows between ecosystems of actors. Exploit vendors, state-backed offensive operators, nation-states, and tech platforms are networked through interdependent information flows, consolidating power in private actors. The political economy of a nation-state provides useful heuristics in articulating strategic aims behind its espionage activities, as well as its approach in controlling the flow of knowledge of vulnerabilities between the private actors of which the state may be a customer. In highlighting this tension between nation-states’ political economies defining their roles as both mediator and customer, we offer security scholars nuanced considerations in theorising cyber power. We conclude that while this tension amplifies private power, policymakers must intervene to reshape interdependent networks that influence and counter it.

Bibliometric Analysis of Intelligence and Espionage Activities in Indonesia

This research examines various strategic intelligence research over the last 10 years. This research adopts a qualitative method based on the results of a bibliometric analysis review of various literature. The literature is obtained from Google Scholar with the help of the Publish or Perish program. The literature search was limited to the year 2015 to 2023 with selected keywords and titles, including the keywords "intelligence", "intelligence agent", and "strategic intelligence". The selection of literature through meta-data analysis using the PRISMA and 94 selected pieces of literature were obtained and analyzed with the help of the VOSviewer program. The literature review results show that studies on intelligence over the last 10 years have carried out a lot of research on intelligence and radicalism. The final finding is that intelligence-related research can be grouped into 6 groups, namely in the fields of security, immigration and elections, prosecutors, terrorism, intelligence, and radicalism.

Spionase Pejabat Diplomatik Rusia Terhadap Negara Denmark Dalam Hukum Diplomatik

Introduction: Espionage is intelligence activity in a country or company seeking confidential information. Espionage activities focus on gathering non-public information through covert means. Espionage by Russian diplomatic officials against Denmark led to the expulsion of Russian diplomatic officials due to unacceptable espionage in Denmark. The purpose of this study is to examine and discuss whether Russian espionage can be categorized as espionage and how responsibility for espionage is carried out by Denmark.Purposes of the Research: To study and discuss whether Russian spying experiments can be categorized as espionage and how is the responsibility for espionage carried out by Russia against Denmark.Methods of the Research: The research method used is normative juridical, namely research on rules, norms, and legal principles based on statutory regulations. The problem approach used is the normative legal approach, namely the conceptual approach, the case approach and the statutory approach. The sources of legal materials used are primary legal materials, secondary legal materials and tertiary legal materials. Legal material collection techniques through library research. Then analyzed qualitatively.Results of the Research: The results of the study conclude that spying by Russian diplomatic officials against Denmark can be categorized as espionage because it is contained in the 1961 Vienna convention. eye is considered espionage. The form of accountability for the Danish state due to actions committed by the Russian state is by expelling or persona nongrata against diplomatic officials who carry out espionage.

Activities of the gendarmerie police of the Russian Empire on the railways of the Grand Duchy of Finland during the First World War

The article analyzes the historical experience of organizing official activities of the gendarmerie police department of the Finnish Railways during the First World War. The study highlights the specifics of the Grand Duchy of Finland as national outskirts which largely influenced the work of the railway police of the Russian Empire in wartime. Based on the analysis of the body of archival documents, there are determined the main measures implemented by gendarmes to ensure the stable functioning of the railways of the Grand Duchy of Finland, to prevent damage and destruction of infrastructure facilities. Particular attention is paid to the prevention of subversive and espionage activities. There are shown the features of conducting counterintelligence activities by railway gendarmes at border stations and in the hinterlands of Finland. Some of the enemy's approaches to training and sending people to the Russian Empire in order to obtain military information are revealed. The consideration of the factors of the political situation in the Grand Duchy of Finland and the variety of tasks performed by railway gendarmes in wartime made it possible to conclude that their activities on the railroads of the national outskirts were of great strategic importance.

19세기 후반 고종의 불법 홍삼무역과 비자금

King Gojong paid attention to red ginseng trade, which could acquire silver, and exercised exclusive authority over red ginseng and red ginseng trade after opening the ports. After allocating most of Posam(포삼, Red ginseng for the trade of envoys) to the royal family in 1884, King Gojong directly controlled the red ginseng trade and collected the trade money. And he also engaged in illegal red ginseng trade.
 King Gojong’s illegal red ginseng trade had not been revealed because it was conducted in secret. However, it was revealed through slush funds given to Min Young-ik in 1885, illegal trade of 2,600 Keun(근, Korean Unit of Weight) of red ginseng in 1888, and smuggling 800 Keun of red ginseng into the Shanghai maritime customs in 1889.
 King Gojong illegally traded hundreds and thousands of Keun of red ginseng, he earned tens of thousands and hundreds of thousands of nyangs(냥, monetary unit of Joseon) of silver. He made the huge sum of money into slush funds.
 King Gojong’s slush funds were deposited at a foreign bank in Hong Kong under a borrowed account, and were used for political and diplomatic lobbying funds, political removal, and espionage activities. King Gojong’s illegal red ginseng trade was mainly carried out in Shanghai and Hong Kong in China.
 King Gojong’s illegal red ginseng trade and slush funds were a countermeasure against extraordinary times such as foreign pressure and invasion, and Joseon’s civil unrest and revolution. And it was King Gojong’s political choice to protect the throne and the throne. However, it was far from the policy of the enrich and strengthen of state and the provision of the poor national finances, which were urgent tasks at the time.

National Security Perceptions of Korean University Students

Purpose: Korean university students have a special interest in security issues, understand the importance of Northeast Asian and foreign situations and national security, and have a sense of responsibility. This is because Korean university students recognized the importance of security through service in the military, and they are aware of security threats and espionage activities even after being discharged. Therefore, by publishing this thesis in English, we intend to contribute to prosperity and peace by sharing information on the security awareness of Korean university students with researchers around the world.
 Method: Frequency analysis was conducted to identify general characteristics using the SPSS/PC+23.0 program, and Cronbach’s α coefficient was calculated to verify the reliability of the questionnaire. In addition, Factor Analysis, Correlation Analysis, and Simple Linear Regression Analysis were conducted on Korean university students’ perception of counterespionage activities, security reporting methods, threats from neighboring countries, and the role of the government.
 Results: ‘Threat and awareness’ factors were extracted for Korean university students’ perception of counterintelligence activities, and 'public factors' and 'personal factors' were extracted for security reporting methods. As major national threats, 'dictatorship' and 'liberal democracy' were classified and extracted, and the government's role was extracted as requiring 'joint response'. Perception of counterintelligence activities correlated with security reporting methods, threats from neighboring countries, and the role of the government. There was also a significant correlation between security reporting methods, threats from neighboring countries, and the role of the government. As a result of simple linear regression analysis, it was found that counterintelligence activity perception affects the method of reporting security, threats from neighboring countries, and the role of the government.
 Conclusion: Korean university students are aware of threats from neighboring countries, and Korea’s military service system is important for raising awareness of the importance of national security through mandatory service in the army and training in the reserves. Korean university students have negative perceptions of the dictatorships of neighboring countries North Korea and China, are aware of China's espionage and cyber psychological warfare, and are aware of the reality by watching TV broadcasts featuring North Korean defectors, and are fully aware of the threat. In response to these threats, Korean university students aspire for stability and prosperity in Northeast Asia through joint responses by government departments.

Robust Learning with Noisy Ship Trajectories by Adaptive Noise Rate Estimation.

Ship trajectory classification is of great significance for shipping analysis and marine security governance. However, in order to cover up their illegal fishing or espionage activities, some illicit ships will forge the ship type information in the Automatic Identification System (AIS), and this label noise will significantly impact the algorithm's classification accuracy. Sample selection is a common and effective approach in the field of learning from noisy labels. However, most of the existing methods based on sample selection need to determine the noise rate of the data through prior means. To address these issues, we propose a noise rate adaptive learning mechanism that operates without prior conditions. This mechanism is integrated with the robust training paradigm JoCoR (joint training with co-regularization), giving rise to a noise rate adaptive learning robust training paradigm called A-JoCoR. Experimental results on real-world trajectories provided by the Danish Maritime Authority verified the effectiveness of A-JoCoR. It not only realizes the adaptive learning of the data noise rate during the training process, but also significantly improves the classification performance compared with the original method.

ФБР ПРОТИВ АФРОАМЕРИКАНЦЕВ (НА ОСНОВЕ ДОКУМЕНТОВ О ПРОГРАММЕ COINTELPRO)

Today we are witnessing how various US intelligence agencies are engaged in espionage activities around the world. However, US citizens have been subjected to the most sophisticated methods of persecution in history. Using the example of the FBI's COINTELPRO program (carried out from 1956 to 1971), directed against activists of the African-American civil rights movement, the article examines the FBI's activities to protect the socio-political foundations of American society, which cannot be called anything but segregational and racist. The author showed how the US government influenced key figures of the civil rights movement in the USA, such as Martin Luther King Jr., Malcolm X and activists of the Black Panthers party through the FBI COINTELPRO program. The consequences of the program are considered, including restrictions on civil liberties, trust in the government and institutional violation of the rights of African Americans. The relationship between the latter phenomenon and earlier phenomena of discrimination against the rights of the "Colored People" of the United States, such as abolitionism and segregation, is carried out. The article analyzes the impact of the FBI's COINTELPRO program on modern times, including its reflection on modern legal norms, counterintelligence measures and public opinion about government surveillance. The study of the FBI's COINTELPRO program is important for understanding the complex relationship between government and civil society.

Elizabethan Catholic Intelligencers, Spain and the Armada of 1597

AbstractRecent research on late Reformation English/British Catholics’ engagement in contemporary politics, has, for the most part, focused on regicidal schemes or on Catholic polemical writings. Espionage activities by Catholics in England, however, have been often overlooked. The hundreds of documents endorsed ‘avisos de Inglaterra’ (reports from England), located in el archivo general de Simancas, are intelligence dossiers about England. These reports were sent to Spain (between 1590–1608) by Hugh Owen, a Welsh Catholic exile, using information gathered by his informants in England. This article seeks to introduce the ‘avisos’ as a genre of sources by exploring the intelligence they contained and placing them within their broader context of Elizabethan/ Jacobean Catholicism and Anglo‐Spanish relations. In using this largely untapped source of Anglo‐Spanish history, this article reaches broader conclusions about how Catholics in England interacted with the Spanish authorities, and tried to influence the Anglo‐Spanish war to their advantage.

Touching Base: Hungarian Intelligence and the School of Slavonic and East European Studies in the 1960s

Abstract: This article deals with a neglected dimension of Cold War history, namely the role of minor Communist secret services in subverting cultural relations with Britain. In particular, the article examines the efforts of Hungarian State Security to penetrate a university centre in London during the 1960s. Drawing on hitherto unexplored archival material, it documents the intensive attempts made to monitor or cultivate individuals at the School of Slavonic and East European Studies — notably the historian Dr László Péter — as part of a wide-ranging and ambitious intelligence offensive on the tenth anniversary of the 1956 Revolution. Paradoxically, this heightened espionage activity took place at a time of enhanced bilateral ties. The historical records analysed here provide new insight into the duplicity of Hungary’s foreign policy, and the hypocrisy of the post-revolutionary regime’s cultural ‘opening’ to the West, during a defining decade.

Cyber Espionage of F-15 Fighter Jet Data Impact To U.S. – China Relations

The purpose of this study is to examine the impact of cyber espionage activities related to the F-35 Joint Strike Fighter Military Project on the relationship between the United States and China. Allegations of Chinese espionage activities first surfaced in the public sphere in early 2015. German media Der Spiegel published a number of pieces of information confirming the result of a data breach by subcontractor Lockheed Martin that allowed China access to classified data on the F35. Cyber espionage is often carried out in order to achieve the national interests of a country in the military, political and economic fields. China's practice of cyber espionage against the United States is also an effort to fulfill its national interests. This study used qualitative methods with data collection techniques through literature study, review of books, journals, newspapers, internet media, and as well as other references. After the data that has been collected is classified according to the problems that have been identified, then it is continued by carrying out systematic content analysis and comparison with information, so that it can answer the problems raised. The results of the study show that the United States and China have not issued significant policies or cooperation in maintaining their cyber security, because they do not want bilateral relations in the economic field to be disrupted due to the data hacking incident. They only agreed that they would not carry out data hacking sponsored or assisted by their respective governments. They are reluctant to issue policies that punish one of them because they want to maintain bilateral relations for a long time, especially in the economic field.

Pengelolaan dan Pemasaran Ganyong sebagai Salah Satu Potensi Pertanian Desa Terbah untuk Mengembangkan Kuliner Yogyakarta

Counseling activities were carried out from April to May 2022 with the Society 5.0 method where this espionage activity was carried out by not sending students to the field. The implementation of unit B was placed in Terbah Village, Patuk District, Gunungkidul Regency, Special Region of Yogyakarta. In this program, there will be counseling related to the management and marketing of canna which can be a potential to develop Yogyakarta’s culinary. The programs implemented by unit B are Village Potential Extension and Guidebook Making. The results of the counseling include (1) E-books and documentation of the development of Terbah Village Potential as a tourist spot; (2) E-books and documentation of the potential development of Terbah Village as a culinary place for canna tubers.

ОСНОВНАЯ ХАРАКТЕРИСТИКА СОВЕРШЕНИЯ ГОСУДАРСТВЕННОЙ ИЗМЕНЫ

This article examines the challenges that have arisen as a result of changes in the modern military political situation. These changes undoubtedly affected the organization of the activities of criminal justice authorities to investigate criminal offenses against the national security of the country. It is necessary to solve these problems by specialists using criminal law and forensic means, taking into account the security of the state. Taking into account the fact that the current military-political situation has also affected the lives of citizens of Armenia, we examined cases when citizens adhere to the national program, as well as cases of committing a crime directed against the security of the state, namely, the concept of “high treason” is analyzed. Let us note that in the theory of criminal law, the criminal legal protection of state security of the Republic of Armenia does not have a comprehensive, detailed development. In the framework of this study, we examine the structure and content of the forensic characteristics of the concept of “high treason”, a concept in forensic science, and study the composition of this crime and its forms. In particular, we have compiled and presented in the article a classification of types of espionage activities that form the crime of “high treason”, and also consider the types of information that are of interest to persons engaged in espionage, and the types of actions that contribute to the “leakage” of information containing state secrets. As a result, we gave our definition of the concept of “high treason” and presented the types of elements of this crime and the features that unite them, as well as what the commission of such a crime can lead to in terms of the country’s security.

Деятельность русского акционерного общества «Мануфактурная компания Зингер» в Сибири накануне и в годы Первой мировой войны: шпионаж или шпиономания?

Based on the analysis of previously unpublished sources, the article examines the actions of the military counterintelligence agencies, the Separate Corps of Gendarmes, and the justice authorities to uncover the espionage activities of the Singer joint-stock company on the eve and the period of the First World War in Siberia, the investigation materials are interpreted, and its results are summed up. The theoretical basis of the research is the principle of consistency and the comparative historical method. The author concludes that the nature of the information collected by the company could well have been of an intelligence orientation, but at that time the domestic special services failed to collect a convincing evidence base to accuse the Singer company of mass espionage.

The Suppression Of The 1919 Anti-Armenian Unrest Of The Muslim Population In The Zod-Basargechar Region And The Restoration Of The Territorial Integrity Of Republic Of Armenia InThe Context Of The Activity Of Colonel Clive Temperley, The Military And Political Representative Of Great Britain

In 1918-1920s, the Republic of Armenia made huge efforts to prevent hostile forces and conspiracies, especially in Surmalu, Kars, Aralitch, Zangibasar, Vedibasar, Böyük-Vedi, Nakhijevan, Zangezur, Zod, Basargechar and other regions. Available archives and other documents show the difficulties the Armenian government faces in preventing the special operations of Azerbaijani-Turkish activities. During the days of the First Republic of Armenia, the successful activity of the Armenian government had significant results in revealing the apparent anti-Armenian intrigues and espionage activities of Azerbaijan in Yerevan aimed at undermining the foundations of Armenian statehood. The anti-Armenian uprisings in Zangibasar, BöyükVedi, as well as in Zod and other Armenian territories, directly sought to separate these territories from Armenia, and this took place in the immediate presence of the British military representative, Colonel C. Temperley.