Esoteric Buddhism Research Articles

Ximing monastery’s esoteric Buddhist traditions

ABSTRACT The court of Emperor Tang Gaozong 唐高宗 (r. 649–683) marked a critical period for the spread of ‘Esoteric Buddhism’ (Mijiao 密教) in China. Furthermore, Ximing Monastery 西明寺, built during the Xianqing 顯慶 reign (656–661), served as an impressive and magnificent site, allowing eminent monks and erudite translators to gather and often take residence there. It was also the site where the translation of many Esoteric Buddhist scriptures occurred. This study discusses several key Tang dynasty monk-translators who took part in translating ‘Esoteric Buddhist’ scriptures at this site and the historical and religious significance of these translation projects. Finally, this study will demonstrate the pivotal role Ximing Monastery played in the historical development of Esoteric Buddhism in China.

Interpretation of the Unique Dhāraṇīs: Focusing on the Shi Moheyan lun 釋摩訶衍論

ABSTRACT The Shi Moheyan lun 釋摩訶衍論 is the commentary on the Awakening of Mahāyāna Faith 大乘起信論. Kūkai 空海 (774–835), the Shingon founder, placed this text in a key position in Shingon Teachings. Later, Emperor Daozong 道宗 (r. 1055–1101) of Liao 遼 also valued the Shi Moheyan lun. One of the common reasons why Kūkai and Daozong paid attention to the Shi Moheyan lun is that it includes elements of both exoteric and esoteric Buddhism. The Shi Moheyan lun’s various mantras are described in Fascicles 8 and 9. The distinct feature of these mantras is its characters’ unique shape, which is only found in the Shi Moheyan lun. Therefore, it is hard to understand exactly what this means and where they came from. Through this study, I examine the meaning of the unusual mantras of the Shi Moheyan lun with its commentaries of Chinese and Japanese books in the tenth and thirteenth centuries. From this, I determine not only their meaning but also their origin, and reveal the relationships and tendencies of esoteric Buddhism in China and Japan.

From China to Japan and Back Again: An Energetic Example of Bidirectional Sino-Japanese Esoteric Buddhist Transmission

Sino-Japanese religious discourse, more often than not, is treated as a unidirectional phenomenon. Academic treatments of pre-modern East Asian religion usually portray Japan as the passive recipient of Chinese Buddhist traditions, while explorations of Buddhist modernization efforts focus on how Chinese Buddhists utilized Japanese adoptions of Western understandings of religion. This paper explores a case where Japan was simultaneously the receptor and agent by exploring the Chinese revival of Tang-dynasty Zhenyan. This revival—which I refer to as Neo-Zhenyan—was actualized by Chinese Buddhist who received empowerment (Skt. abhiṣeka) under Shingon priests in Japan in order to claim the authority to found “Zhenyan” centers in China, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Malaysia, and even the USA. Moreover, in addition to utilizing Japanese Buddhist sectarianism to root their lineage in the past, the first known architect of Neo-Zhenyan, Wuguang (1918–2000), used energeticism, the thermodynamic theory propagated by the German chemist Freidrich Wilhelm Ostwald (1853–1932; 1919 Nobel Prize for Chemistry) that was popular among early Japanese Buddhist modernists, such as Inoue Enryō (1858–1919), to portray his resurrected form of Zhenyan as the most suitable form of Buddhism for the future. Based upon the circular nature of esoteric transmission from China to Japan and back to the greater Sinosphere and the use of energeticism within Neo-Zhenyan doctrine, this paper reveals the sometimes cyclical nature of Sino-Japanese religious influence. Data were gathered by closely analyzing the writings of prominent Zhenyan leaders alongside onsite fieldwork conducted in Taiwan from 2011–2019.

Putting a Face on the Pathogen and Its Nemesis

Abstract In medieval Japan, so-called “four boundary demarcation rituals” were believed to turn invisible epidemic disease-bringing “demons” into visible beings. Making the demons visible, at least to the ritual experts involved, was a way of controlling them. The demons had a dual nature in that they harmed humans but could also become powerful protectors against disease and other calamities. This essay introduces the elaborate ritual culture of yin-yang divination, esoteric Buddhism, and kami worship in Japan, all of which involve “demonic” and protective deities. It explores images of two epidemic demons that serve humans as guardians and protectors against epidemic disease: Tenkeisei 天刑星, the Star of Heavenly Punishment, and Gozutennō 牛頭天王, the Bull-Headed Divine King. Tenkeisei ultimately merged with Gozutennō, who is also conflated with the deity Susanoo 素戔嗚.

Abhiseka Ritual in Buddhist Uyghurs

This study, consists of evaluations about the concept of abhiṣeka, which is the ceremony in which a student or Bodhisattvas enters a Buddhist community or the Buddhahood status by applying various techniques (dhāraṇī, mantra, mudrā, homa and samādhi, etc.) under the guidance of a religious master. Abhiṣeka is a ritual of ‘blessing’ the victory of the person who enters a sacred path as a practice of ‘pouring/sprinkling’, historically similar to the baptism ceremony of Christians. Peculiar to the Buddhist thought system, the Sanskrit abhiṣeka is a level that Bodhisattvas will achieve through various stages as a practice of ‘blessing’. It also corresponds to the expression Sanskrit bhūmi. Abhiṣeka, of which we have information about Mahāyāna and Esoteric Buddhism teachings, is one of the important concepts in the Buddhist religious life adopted by Uyghur Turks. In Uyghurs who adopt different religions (Manichaeaism, Buddhism etc.) they come into contact with the influence of various cultures, Sanskrit abhiṣeka was taken from the Tocharian A/B, and adapted to Turkish texts based on the Buddha religion as abišek, abıšık or abišik. Accordingly, this article aims at the reflections of this term in the Buddhist Uyghurs on the basis of the conceptual value of the concept of abhiṣeka in the Buddhist thought system. In these evaluations centred on the teachings of Mahāyāna and Esoteric Buddhism, the Uyghur text in which the concept of abhiṣeka is mentioned and the translation of this text, the conceptual value of abhiṣeka expression has been tried to be shown within the framework of terms related to Buddhist terminology.

Dome of Heaven: the role of esoteric Buddhism in the Hall of Heavenly Kings at Mogao

ABSTRACT Standing atop the cliff face of the Mogao Caves is a series of stupas, the most complete of which is the so-called Hall of the Heavenly Kings 天王堂. The stupa is remarkable for its domed ceiling and esoteric iconography that contrast dramatically with cave architecture at Mogao. Although identified as the ‘Hall of Heavenly Kings,’ disagreement persists about the structure’s name, dating, and visual program. This article reviews the conflicting evidence previously presented by scholars to propose an alternative hypothesis based on new research exploring esoteric Buddhism and art at Dunhuang. As with the majority of esoteric art in Mogao Caves from the Tang and Five Dynasties, this research also supports the hypothesis that the content and pictorial program in the Hall of Heavenly Kings are in fact not Tibetan-influenced, but rather signify the tradition of the ‘three ācāryas’ of Tang China (Śubhākarasiṃha, Vajrabodhi, and Amoghavajra), ultimately derived from the Pallava Dynasty and, crucially, imported into the Hexi Corridor before the Tibetan conquest.

Following medieval Chinese Buddhist precedents with ritual practices using exoteric Buddhist scriptures (kengyō 顕経) from Amanosan Kongōji 天野山金剛寺 and Shinpukuji 真福寺in medieval Japan

ABSTRACT Myriad sources ranging from Kuroda Toshio’s (1926–1993) ground-breaking methodological research about the exoteric-esoteric Buddhist institutional system (kenmitsutaisei 顕密体制) that governed the practice of Buddhism at the seven ‘great’ temples during the Heian – Nanbokuchō period (794–1392) to the remarkable Tengu zōshi emaki 天狗草紙絵巻 (Illustrated Scrolls of Tengu on Rough Paper) demonstrate how widespread and well-known the idea of the dual cultivation of exoteric and esoteric Buddhist practice was in medieval Japan. We know from the sacred teachings documents (shōgyō聖教) from the libraries of three temples – Amanosan Kongōji (in Osaka), Shinpukuji (Nagoya), and Shōmyōji (Yokohama) – that catalogs were produced locally to classify meticulously copied ritual manuals, commentaries to exoteric and exoteric sūtras and commentaries, and other documents. In this article I introduce Kongōji as a prime example of how exoteric Buddhist texts were ritually employed there, followed by Zenne 禅恵 (alt. Zen’e 1284–1364) and his catalogs, and then present an overview of the sacred documents he marked as exoteric. I also explain why exoteric or ‘mainstream’ Buddhism must not be excluded from the study of the history of medieval Japanese Buddhism 顕密体制天狗草紙絵巻聖教御請来目録禅恵称名寺.

The Patterns and Characteristics of Esoteric Buddhist Therapies during Goryeo Dynasty.

This study focused its investigation on esoteric Buddhist treatment methods during Goryeo. In Goryeo, they published dharani scriptures related to illness. Beomseo-chongji-jip, a collection of dharanis, contains few dharanis for treatment. The publication of a dharani scripture was a precondition of dharani-based Buddhist prayers. There had been cases of treating illness through Buddhist prayers based on a dharani since ancient times, and Hyetong of Samgukyusa is a good example. The religious sect of esoteric Buddhism that inherited the line of Hyetong in Goryeo was Chongji-jong, which seems to have been partially responsible for royal medicine and engaged in relief activities for people to end an infectious disease. During the period of Yuan's interventions, Yeom Seung-ik became a favorite of the king for his ability of treating illness through his spells. He was not a Buddhist monk, and his case reflects the wide spread of disease-treating spells among common people those days. The establishment of a ritual was one of the traditional therapies. In Goryeo, various esoteric Buddhist rituals were held for therapeutic purposes. Marijicheon-doryang, Gongjakwang-doryang, and Buljeongsim-doryang were established to expel infectious diseases, and Sojae-doryang and Boseong-doryang were established to treat the illness of kings and queens. They were intended to treat illness by eliminating the causes of epidemics and diseases by the virtue of dharanis. Esoteric Buddhist therapies containing Taoist elements were also developed. The utilization of Eight-Gate Transformation and talismans are the exampels. In early Joseon, Buddhist monks of Chongji-jong were said to have contributed to the treatment of diseases by using Eight-Gate Transformation. They were used to predict a good direction for the treatment of a patient. This practice of Chongji-jong Buddhist monks in early Joseon seems to have inherited the heritage of Goryeo, which suggests that Eight-Gate Transformation was one of the therapies practiced by esoteric Buddhist monks in Goryeo. Talismans are commonly known to be used in Taoism and shamanism, but Buddhist scriptures, especially esoteric Buddhist scriptures, contain a variety of talismans. Buljeongsim-darani-gyeong has talismans on its last page and records that one can treat his or her illness by burning the talisman and taking its ash. This therapy proposed by this scripture seems to have enjoyed considerable popularity in Goryeo, when its simplified versions comprised only of dharani phrases and talismans were made. These various esoteric Buddhist therapies demonstrate that human beings made utmost efforts to overcome their personal and social crises. Therapies are a total reflection of a society's contemporary politics, religion, ideas, and culture. Esoteric Buddhist therapies may seem like superstitions in the eyes of modern people, but they must have been reliable treatment methods whose efficacy was guaranteed within the thinking system of people during Goryeo.

東台両密における『瑜祇経』解釈の伝承と展開 ―安然の自性障解釈を中心に―

東台両密における『瑜祇経』解釈の伝承と展開 ―安然の自性障解釈を中心に―

近代の真言密教における『釈摩訶衍論』観の問題:―事相に対する理解の欠如―

近代の真言密教における『釈摩訶衍論』観の問題:―事相に対する理解の欠如―

Inherent Obstruction and the Infinitesimal Attachment in Annotated Editions of the <i>Yuqi jing</i> in Shingon Esoteric Buddhism

Inherent Obstruction and the Infinitesimal Attachment in Annotated Editions of the <i>Yuqi jing</i> in Shingon Esoteric Buddhism

Rob Linrothe. Review of "Maṇḍalas in the Making: The Visual Culture of Esoteric Buddhism at Dunhuang" by Michelle C. Wang.

Rob Linrothe. Review of "Maṇḍalas in the Making: The Visual Culture of Esoteric Buddhism at Dunhuang" by Michelle C. Wang.

Chinese Esoteric Buddhism: Amoghavajra, the Ruling Elite, and the Emergence of a Tradition

Chinese Esoteric Buddhism: Amoghavajra, the Ruling Elite, and the Emergence of a Tradition

해남 대흥사 북미륵암 마애불상 도상에 보이는 중기밀교적 특징

해남 대흥사 북미륵암 마애불상 도상에 보이는 중기밀교적 특징

Japanese monk Chonen and the Buddha Image of King Udayana which he Brought to Japan : More than One Mearning Which He and His Disciple Gave on the Image

This paper examines several meanings which Monk Chonen and his disciple Josan gave to Shakyamuni image in Seiryoji Temple. They carved a copy of the Image called King Udayana statue , that was put near the emperor of Song dynasty. They carved it at Taizhou and brought it to Japan as a symbol of friendship between the two countries. But the Imperial court of Japan, which didn t want to maintain diplomatic relations with Song dynasty, stopped service for the statue. At the same time, Chonen started to stresses the fact that he and his disciple Josan actually saw the Image with their own eyes. For founding a new temple in which they train their successors, they tried to making use of this experience as in the case of their other experiences with seeing good omens in Mt WuTai, mastering Esoteric Buddhism, and studying Siddham script. After Chonen s death, Josan advocated not only that the Image they saw in China was not imitation but genuine carved by Udayana in India, but also the image of Seiryoji temple was what they copied in front of the Image. In 12th century Cloistered Emperor Goshirakawa tried to erase remaining trace of Song emperor from the image and he rethought it as a symbol of the royal authority.

The Structure of “Jishōe” 自性会 and “Kaji sekai” 加持世界 in the Shingi-Shingon School: Shōken’s 聖憲 <i>Daisho hyakujō daisanjū </i>大疏百条第三重

The major feature of the Shingi-Shingon 新義 School is the “Kajishin-setsu” 加持身説, the idea of the empowered responsive body. It is the doctrine that the preacher of Esoteric Buddhism, described in the Mahāvairocana Sūtra, is the empowered manifestation “kajishin (adhiṣṭhānakāya)” of the “Jishōshin (自性身, dharmakāya)”. While there are many critical studies that examine who the preacher of Esoteric Buddhism is, much remains unclear in the details.

The Doctrinal Origins of Embryology in the Shingon School

In this article, I discuss the significance of embryological knowledge, such as the red and white drops and the five developmental stages of the embryo, in medieval Shingon esoteric Buddhism. Specifically, I examine the writings of Kakuban, an eminent Shingon Buddhist monk in early medieval Japan, and point out that, according to Kakuban, embryological knowledge was connected with the six elements, which were fundamental to Shingon conceptions of ontology. In other words, by constructing embryological theories, medieval Shingon monks such as Kakuban attempted to make a correlation between abstract and distant cosmologies and the life and death realities of their daily lives.

Nenbutsu Orthodoxies in Medieval Japan

New approaches to Buddhist doctrine and practice flourished within and across diverse lineages and sub-lineages in early medieval Japan. The early-modern and modern sectarianization of Japanese Buddhism, however, has tended to obscure the complex ways that the very idea of orthodoxy functioned in this fluid medieval environment. In this article, I explore attempts to account for the diversity of views regarding] nenbutsu orthodoxy in trea- tises composed by scholars monks affiliated with Mt. Kōya and Mt. Hiei. In particular, this article contextualizes how these monks constructed the idea of an esoteric nenbutsu by drawing upon earlier taxonomies developed in the Tendai school as well as the East Asian esoteric Buddhist corpus. Ultimately, this study concludes that the esoteric nenbutsu was not the provenance of a particular school or sect, but rather served as a polemical construct designed to subsume the diversity of approaches to nenbutsu praxis as monks in diverse lineages competed with one another to define esoteric Buddhism in the early medieval context.

“Deviant Teachings”: The Tachikawa Lineage as a Moving Concept in Japanese Buddhism

In modern studies of esoteric Buddhism in medieval Japan, the so-called Tachikawa lineage has played a central role in defining heretical or heterodox practice. Founded in the early twelfth century, this minor and local lineage of the Shingon school underwent a series of transformations, eventually becoming a model for all heresies in Japan. In medieval Japan, the term “Tachikawa” was irredeemably associated with explicit sexual practices, especially in the writings of the Mt. Kōya monk Yūkai and his successors. These polemical critiques of Tachikawa as a deviant lineage and teaching developed into a tradition of textual study that sought to establish an orthodoxy in the Shingon school. This critique was later applied beyond the Shingon sectarian context to instances of heresy in the Jōdo Shin school and, eventually, Christianity. This heresiological process gradually resulted in a multilayered, “moving concept” of Japanese heresy, which came to fruition during the nineteenth century with the introduction of the Western ideas of religion and heresy.

The Making of an Esoteric Deity: Sannō Discourse in the Keiran shūyōshū

This study explores depictions of Sannō in the Keiran shūyōshū, a collection of orally transmitted teachings on Mt. Hiei compiled in the early fourteenth century. Originally a conglomeration of protective kami, Sannō rose in prominence to become the primary deity of the mountain and, by extension, the divine representation of the Tendai teachings. Based on the medieval hermeneutic of source-trace, Sannō was posited as the embodiment of Tendai esoteric doctrine. This article demonstrates that the Sannō deity of Mt. Hiei, as constructed in the Keiran, represents a concerted effort among Tendai scholastics in medieval Japan to specify an orthodox esoteric Buddhist tradition by associating the fundamental doctrines of their school and consolidating competing interpretations into the guise of a singular deity.