Esoteric Buddhism Research Articles

Nenghai: A Perspective from Han-Tibetan Cultural Interaction

Abstract Nenghai 能海, a distinguished patriotic monk in the history of modern Chinese Buddhism, made remarkable contributions to the revitalization of Han Buddhism and the promotion of Han-Tibetan cultural exchanges. He journeyed to Xizang twice, studying under Khang Gsar Rinpoche 康萨仁波切 (1890–1941) and mastering both the exoteric and esoteric teachings of Buddhism. Upon his return to the Han regions of China, he founded “the Great Prajñāpāramitā Sect 大般若宗”, guiding disciples through Tibetan Lamrim and managing monasteries according to Han traditions, thereby adeptly propagating the integrated teachings of exoteric and esoteric Buddhism. During times of national turmoil and ethnic crises, he strove to revive the declining influence of Buddhism, fearlessly persevering against adversities. His efforts significantly contributed to preserving the integrity of Buddhist doctrines in China and fostering the diversity and prosperity of various Buddhist sects.

Video as World Mandala: Nakajima Ko’s Animaker, Aniputer, and Cosmic Video

Abstract Early video processing tools present a compelling perspective through which to reconsider the integrated practice of Tokyo-based early video artist Nakajima Ko. The author examines Nakajima's practice through his concepts of animation, the development of his Animaker (1979) and Aniputer (1982) the ways he sees video connected to Esoteric Buddhist thought. Returning then to his 1986 video Mt. Fuji, the author illustrates how it is representative of the hybrid analog-digital view of video that leads Nakajima to posit it as a cosmic medium circa 1986.

Maṇḍala or Sign? Re-Examining the Significance of the “Viśvavajra” in the Caisson Ceilings of Dunhuang Mogao Caves

This article delves into the exploration of a significant sign, the “viśvavajra”, found in the caisson ceilings of Buddhist esoteric art in Dunhuang’s Mogao Caves. These caissons, featuring the viśvavajra sign in the center, were prevalent from the mid-Tang period to the Western Xia dynasty (ninth to thirteenth centuries) and are recorded by The Overall Record of Dunhuang Mogao Grottoes under description as “Jiaochu Jingxin”. Similar caissons are also found in Western Buddhist Caves near Dunhuang, and Yulin Caves in Guazhou County, indicating a distinct regional character. Focusing on a well-preserved and intricately detailed example from Cave 361, this article aims to elucidate the specific tantric significance of the viśvavajra at the center of the caissons within the broader context of Buddhist art. Drawing from related tantras, the discussion explores how the sign and its surrounding compositions align with a particular homa (fire offering) maṇḍala, specifically the śāntika maṇḍala crucial to numerous Tantric Buddhist rituals. Furthermore, the article examines the evolution of caisson of this type of maṇḍala over time. By comparing the mid-Tang example from Cave 361 with the late Tang period’s Cave 14, a noticeable shift in format becomes apparent. The viśvavajra sign takes on new significance, embodying “the samaya of all Tathāgatas”. Ultimately, the article explores how the significance of the viśvavajra sign transforms into an allusion to Vairocana or Rocana under the Sino-Tibetan Esoteric Buddhist context in the Hexi Corridor during the early Northern Song and Western Xia dynasty.

밀교의 현대 명상 전용에 관한 고찰 - 『대일경』과 붓다구히야의 주석을 중심으로

밀교의 현대 명상 전용에 관한 고찰 - 『대일경』과 붓다구히야의 주석을 중심으로

Hand of the 42-armed Avalokiteśvara Holding A Skull Rod.

The skull most commonly symbolizes death, mortality, and the unachievable nature of immortality. However, in Korean Buddhist art, skulls are rarely found. The aim of this study was to explore the image and meaning of the skull in the Joseon dynasty (1392 to 1910) of Korea. The terms [Buddhist] and [painting] and [Korea] were used to search Google (www.google.com), and the Research Information Sharing Service of Korea (https://www-riss-kr-ssl.openlink), was also searched for [Buddhism] () and [art] () and [skull] (). This study focused on paintings or statues of Avalokiteśvara because Avalokiteśvara was often depicted holding various items in the hands, especially the multiarmed Avalokiteśvara. The corresponding Buddhist texts were searched on "Archives of Buddhist Culture" (http://kabc.dongguk.edu). In the paintings and statues of the 42-armed Sahasra-bhuja Avalokiteśvara, one of the hands was holding a skull rod. In the royal version of the "Five Great Dhārāṇis Collection ()," which was published in 1458, a skull was found in a rod held by a 42-armed Avalokiteśvara. This corresponds to one of the verses of the "42-Hand Mantras" (Om dhuna vajra ha). The purpose of the mantra was to communicate with and manipulate ghosts. The meaning in the original Susiddhikara Sutra is quite different from the 42-Hand Mantras in the Joseon dynasty of Korea. The reason for this difference is thought to be the merger of esoteric Buddhism with the folk religions of China and Korea.

Artistic Confluence: Examining the Cultural and Religious Interplay Between Yunnan and Imperial China During the Sui-Tang and Song Periods in Art

This study delves into the cultural nuances of the peripheral kingdoms in the west and south-west regions during the Sui-Tang and Song periods of Imperial China. While there's extensive research on mainstream Chinese identity, these peripheral regions, particularly Yunnan, have been relatively underexplored. The area witnessed a shift from scattered chiefdoms to more structured governance, with the Nanzhao Kingdom consolidating power by the 8th century. With the introduction of Azhaliism, a form of esoteric Buddhism, in the 9th century, Buddhism replaced local pagan practices, significantly influencing the region's cultural and artistic expressions. This study analyses art pieces from the Nanzhao and Dali Kingdom periods, examining four pieces from both the respective local kingdoms and their corresponding Chinese dynasties. The art pieces, including the renowned Illustrated History of Nanzhao and the Thousand Buddha Picture from the Dali Kingdom, offer insights into the evolving cultural dynamics, reflecting both unique regional attributes and broader Chinese influences. The research suggests a growing alignment of Yunnan art with mainstream Chinese styles post the Tang dynasty, emphasizing the region's gradual Sinophilic shift, while retaining its distinctive Indo-Tibetian elements. This analysis underscores the multifaceted cultural interplay between Yunnan and central China, illuminating the symbiotic evolution of their artistic and cultural identities.

The Zen of Mahāvairocana, Or: Does Bodhidharma’s Nose Preach the Dharma?

Abstract This paper addresses the relationship between Zen and tantric or esoteric Buddhism in premodern Japan from the point of view of the Buddhas and Buddha bodies considered to be preaching these two traditions. After surveying theories on the dharmakāya teaching already present in Chinese Buddhism, it considers the development of this doctrinal notion in the Japanese tantric traditions. The paper demonstrates that this tantric discourse on the Buddha as preacher provided thinkers such as Enni 圓爾 (1202–1280) and Chikotsu Daie 癡兀大慧 (1229–1312) with a framework to integrate Zen into a tantric world. Eventually, and under the influence of embryological motifs circulating widely in medieval Buddhism, Zen practitioners came to establish their own theories on the human as Buddha body. The paper concludes that medieval Zen and medieval tantric Buddhism should be considered sister movements.

Tantra Ducks and Zen Bunnies

Abstract This paper reconsiders the relationship between esoteric or tantric Buddhism and Zen in premodern Japan. Taking the teachings of Enni 圓爾 (1202–1280) and early modern Sōtō lore as its examples, as well as an adapted version of Wittgenstein’s concept of “seeing-as” as its methodological guideline, the paper argues that the categories of “esoteric Buddhism” and “Zen” themselves should be treated as discursively constructed. From this point of view, the scholarly desideratum is to undertake the genealogical elucidation of the process of their construction. The paper concludes that “esoteric Zen” should be considered a family of strategic, discursive practices predicated on acts of “seeing-as” and their subsequent sedimentation through repetition.

Kakui’s Hakase-Shi-Kuden-no-Koto in Modern English Translation

The present work is a modern English-language translation and annotation of Kakui’s (1237-?)Hakase-Shi-Kuden-no-Koto, the earliest dated medieval Japanese manuscript to give specific detailsregarding the design and function of the go-in bakase, itself a system of diastematic neumes prevalentin Shingon-sect Japanese esoteric Buddhist circles from as early as the thirteenth century usedfor recording, as well as recalling, their hymnody. Hakase-Shi-Kuden-no-Koto has the secondary distinctionof being the earliest dated treatise on Shingon-sect Shōmyō oral transmission of any kind,and it has the tertiary distinction of being, to the translator’s knowledge, the only extant medievalJapanese manuscript to provide a comprehensive table of medieval Japanese neumes. The treatisehas been preserved in a manuscript in the hand of the eighteenth-century Shingon priest Reizui(ca. 1756). Rezui’s copy is currently housed at the Koyasan University Library in Wakayama prefecture,and it is upon this version of Kakui’s text that the current translation is based. This translationis intended to provide both a point of entry into the world of Japanese, and indeed East Asian,neume studies for musicologists, and a point of reference in the necessarily collaborative endeavorof internationalizing the field of comparative liturgy. With that in mind, the footnotes include referencesto neumes from the notational systems of the Latin and Byzantine Christian churches oflate antiquity and medieval times that are, to the translator, obvious graphic equivalents to neumesgiven by Kakui. This is done not to suggest any particular historical interpretation, but rather toidentify phenomenological similarities that beckon to be explored for their historico-musicologicalsignificance.

Heian Period Developments in Japanese Esoteric Buddhist Practice: The Case of the Fugen Enmei Ritual and its Various Honzons

The present paper addresses esoteric Buddhist rituals in Japan, with special focus on the changes that happened in its practice in the first couple of centuries after its initial arrival to the country. Although esotericism originated in India, it was the brief spotlight it gained in China during the Tang Dynasty (especially in the 8th century) that determined its transmission to Japan in the beginning of the 9th century, where it spread rapidly and reached a particular culmination within the same time period, i.e., the Heian Period (794 to 1185/1192). On the one hand, the Shingon school, established by the monk Kūkai (774-835), was essentially the first time the esoteric Buddhist teachings were systematised, and although the founder’s person and teachings are still very much revered to this day, changes have begun right after his death in 835. On the other hand, the Tendai school, a rival for imperial recognition and support and also established (or rather introduced) in the beginning of the 9th century by the monk Saichō (767-822, a contemporary of Kūkai) included some esoteric teachings, and with the practices introduced by later Tendai monks, such as Ennin (794-864) or Enchin (814-891), this school cultivated esoteric practices that are still extant in Japan today. Firstly, the meaning and usage of the honzon (an icon of a deity) in esoteric Buddhist rituals is clarified in the paper, while later the evolution of two specific icons that were used during the Fugen Enmei rituals of both the Shingon and Tendai schools is introduced, with explanations as to why there are two different types of iconographies extant for the same kind of ritual. The paper contributes to the study of those esoteric practices that were created and developed in a locally recognized Buddhist milieu that served specific purposes in Japan and are found in no other Buddhist cultures in Asia.

고려시대 『佛頂心陀羅尼經』의 간행과 판본 분석

This study examined Chinese edition and records of a Korean institution based on previous studies and actual examination of the Sūtra of Great Dhāraṇī of the Uṣṇīṣa-cittā. In conclusion, following points have been discovered.
 First, the Sūtra of Great Dhāraṇī of the Uṣṇīṣa-cittā is categorized as Wigyeong(僞經) as it was established during the Tang Dynasty and its structure follows three volumes and one edition; different signatures were marked according to content of each volume.
 Second, there are Chinese character editions and Seoha editions discovered in Dunhuang, Xia, and Turpan. In particular, Gyeongdang(經幢; a sculpture with engraved scripts in a tower-style stone) style was popular in the 11th and 12th centuries during the Liao Dynasty and Jin Dynasty.
 Third, in the 12th century (year of 1150, 1156, and 1166) of Korea, Jumun(呪文) of ‘Buljeongsimjineon(佛頂心眞言)’ in Dharani Chongjijip(摠持集; compiled edition of Dharanis) is listed in Siddam characters. These records were discovered in Vairocana Buddha statue in Haeinsa Temple and the editions of the year of 1156 and 1166 consist of in 47 chapters engraved by ‘Jonsim(存心)’ and Eonpyeong(彦平)’, respectively. Among these editions, there is Beomseo Chongjijip prayed by Jahwa(資華) of Bupsoo Temple(法水寺) and the edition in 1150 was corrected and published by Sawon(思遠) in Gwangjaepo(廣濟鋪), a place where old Pyeong was.
 According to 『History of Goryeo(高麗史)』, Buljeongsimdoryang(佛頂心道場) was held frequently as a Buddhist event to protect the country from war and natural disasters. Three volumes structure can be witnessed in the early 13th century and most of the existing books are designed with portability. It is suggested that these books were created to hope for safety from the war against Mongolia and the military coup. Such practice reflects the background of the time, when esoteric Buddhism was popular among public.
 Fourth, in the early Joseon Dynasty, there are small-sized books created based on the Goryeo editions to treat and prevent individuals’ disease, disasters, and bad luck. In 1485, the royal kingdom published a woodblock edition with a plaque based on the edition of Ming Dynasty of China for the well-being of the royal family and prosperity of the descendants. During this time, Eonhae edition was printed with Eulhae metal type. This edition was published until the 17th century with slight variations in a myraid of local temples. However, the style on Eonhae portion remained the same.
 Fifth, the titles of the three volumes of the scripture are different and the marks in each volume appear differently by periods and editions. The first volume lists the virtues of Dharani as Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva pledges to Sakyamuni Buddha; the second volume mentions the virtues and protection gained by memorizing and offering this scripture all the time; and the third volume includes Dharani’s virtues with four spiritual examples. In other words, it includes stories about people eliminating their sins from their previous lives, woman born as a man, healing diseases, defeating evil, getting pregnant, protecting mothers and living in paradise through Dharani.
 Sixth, this Dharani was engraved and distributed not only in three volumes but also in the form of a single sheet with Jumun(呪文) since the Goryeo Dynasty, and was mainly engraved at local temples in response to the demand of the private sector in the late Joseon Dynasty. As the time goes by, Hanmuneum, Siddam character, and Hangeuleum were selectively applied to Jumun(呪文) as needed and its writing styles including but not limited to Hapja(合字; combined characters), Byeonggi(倂記; write both Hangeul and Hanja character sounds in orderly manner), Gujeolpyosi(句節表示; read by character segments), Jangdaneum(句節表示), Seongjopyosi(聲調表示; high and low character sounds) varied by the ed

Religious Comparativism, Esotericism, and the Global Occult: A Methodological Outline

Abstract This article scrutinizes the history of “esoteric” and “occult” as comparative terms and outlines a concrete methodology for their examination and potential practical application, based on the theoretical framework of Global Religious History. My main argument is that “esoteric” and “occult” are today de facto comparative terms that are employed worldwide within and beyond academia. Similar to the case of “religion,” they are not the result of the unilateral diffusion of “Western” knowledge but of globally entangled exchanges that can serve as concrete objects of research. Their synchronic and diachronic historical contextualization forms the basis of the development of substantiated comparative terms and their (experimental) application in different contexts. Departing from scholarship on “Western esotericism,” “esoteric Buddhism,” and “the global occult,” the article outlines a five-step methodology that illustrates the practical use of Global Religious History for religious comparativism based on concrete historical examples.

A Study on the Establishment of Visualizing Stage of Mind Sutra(心地觀經) Oriented with Elements of Exoteric Buddhism and Esoteric Buddhism

A Study on the Establishment of Visualizing Stage of Mind Sutra(心地觀經) Oriented with Elements of Exoteric Buddhism and Esoteric Buddhism

The Reception of the Mantra of Light in Republican Period Chinese Buddhism

This paper examines the utilization of the mantra of light and its associated maṇḍala practices by Wang Hongyuan 王弘願 (1876–1937), a Chinese Buddhist during the Republican Period, and his adherents, which has not yet been noticed by previous scholars. With the import of esoteric Buddhist doctrines and practices from Japan, the mantra of light, which was a rarely used mantra in pre-modern China, gained renewed significance. This led to the widespread adoption of the ritual practices of this mantra by Wang Hongyuan and his surrounding Buddhist groups in early modern China. The rituals of this mantra were used as a supplement or substitute for near-death Pure Land practices. This paper presents Pure Land Buddhist practices intertwined with esoteric Buddhist elements or “esoteric” approaches to Pure Land rebirth in modern Chinese Buddhism which have been overlooked by previous scholars.

How Did the Clinical Medicine Progress during the Unified Silla Era: Installment of the Medical Education Center 'Uihak', and Its Effects.

In this research, I aimed to recognize the historical meaning of installing the medical education center, 'Uihak', during the Silla dynasty. 'Uihak' was installed in 692, in the first year of King Hyoso 's rule. 'Uihak' was founded by using various Chinese medical classics as its textbooks for medical education, such as the Classic of Plain Questions. The wooden prescriptions excavated from Anapji, which is thought to have been created in the middle of the 8th century, and the Chinese medical book Prescriptions for Universal Benefit, which the envoy of Silla tried to acquire in 803, reflect the idea on medicine during that period in Silla. By this time, the field of medicine began to develop the idea to discern the locations and mechanism of disease patterns by centering on the viscera and bowels while making use of the herbal prescriptions based on various drugs. This means that clinical medicine founded upon the medical education achieved in 'Uihak' was being realized in the medical fields as well. According to the Chronicles of the Three States, for the illness of Queen Sunduk in 636, medicine, praying, and the method of esoteric Buddhism was tried out as a means of her cure. Comparatively, for the treatment of the first rank Chunggong in 822, the Kingdom's representative doctor with professional medical knowledge was sought out to fine a cure. The analyses of the human disease, diagnosis, treatment method, etc., given by the kingdom's representative doctor were identical to those recommended in the medical textbooks used in 'Uihak'. As such, we can posit that his academic background was 'Uihak' and the education given there. The Classic of Materia Medica, which was also used in 'Uihak', was a book professionally centered on the drug branch of medicine. The Classic of Materia Medica is a terminology referring to various books on drugs, including the Shennong's Classic of Materia Medica, the Variorum of the Classic of Materia Medica, the Newly Revised Materia Medica, etc. Thus, we cannot specify what the classic of Materia Medica actually taught, based on only its terminology. However, based on the wooden prescriptions excavated from Anapji, and from the terminology of drugs recorded in the drug trading document Purchase List for Silla goods preserved in Shosoin of Japan, we can hypothesize that in the middle of the 8th century, the Newly Revised Materia Medica was indeed being circulated. Based on these evidences, we can also hypothesize that Silla was part of the network of drug trading that encompassed the entire region of Asia. After unifying the Korean peninsula, the Kingdom of Silla actively adopted the medical educational system of Tang China. By using the obtained medical knowledge, Silla cured illnesses and used the medical knowledge on various drugs recorded in the Newly Revised Materia Medica to pursue trade with China, Japan, and other countries. Through the installation of 'Uihak', the same medicine has now begun to be officially used in East Asia, including Silla.

Tradition and Transmission: Rocana Assembly in Niche no. 5 at Feilai Feng and Huayan Teaching during the Song Period

The Huayan sutras are important historical references for the Chinese worship of the Rocana Buddha; however, these Huayan sutras provide little help in understanding the worship for the larger Rocana triad (i.e., Rocana Buddha flanked by two bodhisattvas) in niche no. 5 at the Feilai Feng complex. The Rocana triad images are primarily linked to the Buddhist texts written by Chinese monks which established the principle for teaching the Huayan ritual during the Tang period. With regard to the iconographic characteristics of the two bodhisattvas of the triad in niche no. 5, the bodhisattva Samantabhadra rides an elephant, while the bodhisattva Manjusri rides a lion. They are associated with Buddhist texts and artistic productions beyond the Huayan school and are possibly related to esoteric Buddhism. Similarly, the crowned Rocana seen in niche no. 5 is likely derived from an older tradition dating to the Tang and Five Dynasties periods. Similar descriptions can be found in esoteric Buddhist texts and images. Nevertheless, niche no. 5 is the earliest extant example of such a Rocana triad, wherein the triad is represented by a central crowned Buddha with a special hand gesture or mudra, who is flanked by two bodhisattvas riding animals. From niche no. 5, one can see the development of the Huayan Rocana triad within the tenth century. The combination of elements seen in this niche also indicates that Buddhist artists were not limited by the boundaries of different schools or teachings when they created a new form of iconography. The specific iconography of niche no. 5 can be linked to the Han-style Buddhist artistic traditions from previous periods, such as the Tang, Five Dynasties/Wuyue Kingdom. Ultimately, the contemporary Northern Song capital, Kaifeng, was likely the most direct influence. The Rocana Buddhist triad at niche no. 5 is reflected in the iconography of the same triad installed at the Huiyin monastery at a later time during the Northern Song Dynasty. In turn, the similarities between the images in niche no. 5 and those from other regions, such as Sichuan, Yunnan, Korea and Japan, reveal the connection between the Huiyin monastery and these other sites.

Incense Seals and Stamps in Chinese and Korean Culture: Typology and Context

This article analyzes artistic seals and stamps as a special tool in incense culture of China and Korea, used from the early Middle Ages to the present day. These tools of varying look and shape are analyzed in a historical and cultural context, using high quality materials and sources drawn from ethnographic sources and anthropological research of the authors. The use and evolution of such tools in China can be traced back as far as the early Esoteric Buddhist practices of the 7th – 8th centuries (and their prototypes in the form of Taoist ritual talisman-seals 符 fu or 印 yin can be dated as far back as the 4th – 5th centuries). In Korean culture however, the use of these tools can be traced back, presumably, only to the Goryeo era (918–1392), after which a long gap in terms of findings follows. The historical and typological analysis of the development of cultural traditions using these tools, in this particular case, could only be completed using predominantly current material. As a result of comparative study, this article identifies the most representative types of patterns, and determines the functions and applicability of such tools.

Astral Cult in the Encompassing Mind: Rethinking the ‘Stellar Magic Circle’ from Khara-Khoto

A rare painting with unique subject matter among extant Tangut cultural heritage, the so-called astral maṇḍala (more accurately, Grahamātṛkā-maṇḍala) from Khara-khoto deserves focused academic attention. Now in the collection of Hermitage, this painting broadens the horizons of research from multiple perspectives, including the history of astrology, Tangut culture, Esoteric Buddhism, and ritual studies. Introduced into Tangut Buddhism likely via Tibet, the Grahamātṛka-maṇḍala contributed to the construction of both a new iconographical system and a new pantheon of astral deities. The painting provides important visual details that gradually reveal a complete series of liturgies based on the Tangut astral cult, from the maṇḍala construction to fire ritual with offerings and visualization. Therefore, it helps to demonstrate astrological knowledge and religious practices prevalent in the Tangut period but previously overlooked by modern researchers. The Tangut people learned with an encompassing mind and became skilled at new teachings, methods, and practices through transcultural communications with India and Tibet. They actively combined this learning with the existing Chinese astrological and religious traditions in the Héxī region.

The evolution of Buddhist views on divination: From Original Buddhism to Esoteric Buddhism

The Buddhist attitude toward divination changed overtime. In early Buddhism, in order to project a positive image of the religious order, to distinguish it from other religious practices, the Buddha had established a precept forbidding monks to engage in divination. However, this prohibition was not strictly enforced, and the Buddha often lumped divination together with other minor illicit conducts. With the development of Mahayana Buddhism, concepts, such as “skillful and expedient means” (upāya-kauśala, 方便善巧) removed obstacles to the secularization of Buddhism, and divination was generally accepted as a worldly means. However, opposition to divination did not disappear completely, and Mahayana Buddhism also attempted to restrain its followers from engaging in divinatory activities. With the mystification of dhāraṇī and the rise of tantric siddhis, the development of Esoteric Buddhism gradually deviated from the path of early Buddhism, and worldly mundane techniques, such as divination were accepted by tantra as symbols of its siddhis’ achievements.

Буддийская традиция и япон­ская поэзия сквозь призму «песен радости» (на материале цикла «Сто строф о временах года» Дзиэна)

The study discusses the relationship between Buddhism and poetry in early medieval Japan drawing on the cycle of poems “One Hundred Verses about the Seasons” (Shikidai hyakushu) dedicated to the shrine in Ise and written by the Tendai monk Jien (1155–1225). The paper deals with discursive strategies and ritual practices based on the exam­ples of the cycle “One Hundred Verses about the Seasons” by Jien, by which Buddhism in early medieval Japan consecrated a new ritual use of one of the genres of court litera­ture, waka poetry. The paper briefly describes the process of incorporating the forms of Japanese waka poetry into Buddhist rites, traces the appearance of “songs of joy from following the teachings of (Buddha)” (ho:raku) in ritual practice, explains the meaning of the word ho:raku, describes a stage in the development of poetic theory formulated within the framework of Japanese esoteric Buddhism, characterizes the essence and meaning of “songs of joy” in the Buddhist tradition. The authors point to the contribution of Jien to the development of poetic theory and the relevance of new forms of waka, “songs of joy” created on the basis of this theory. The textual analysis of the cycle “One Hundred Verses about the Seasons”, its structure and content allows identifying the fea­tures of the genre of spiritual poetry ho:raku. The results also display how secular themes (nature, love lyrics) are reinterpreted to convey the experience of learning the teachings of Buddha, show the functioning of waka poetry as a means of preaching Buddhist teach­ings, as a way to comprehend the truth and achieve enlightenment.