Erta Ale Research Articles

Reduction of atmospheric disturbances in PSInSAR measure technique based on ENVISAT ASAR data for Erta Ale Ridge

The interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR) is becoming more and more popular to investigate surface deformation, associated with volcanism, earthquakes, landslides, and post-mining surface subsidence. The measuring accuracy depends on many factors: surface, time and geometric decorrelation, orbit errors, however the largest challenges are the tropospheric delays. The spatial and temporal variations in temperature, pressure, and relative humidity are responsible for tropospheric delays. So far, many methods have been developed, but researchers are still searching for the one, that will allow to correct interferograms consistently in different regions and times. The article focuses on examining the methods based on empirical phase-based methods, spectrometer measurements and weather model. These methods were applied to the ENVISAT ASAR data for the Erta Ale Ridge in the Afar Depression, East Africa

Magmatic architecture within a rift segment: Articulate axial magma storage at Erta Ale volcano, Ethiopia

Understanding the magmatic systems beneath rift volcanoes provides insights into the deeper processes associated with rift architecture and development. At the slow spreading Erta Ale segment (Afar, Ethiopia) transition from continental rifting to seafloor spreading is ongoing on land. A lava lake has been documented since the twentieth century at the summit of the Erta Ale volcano and acts as an indicator of the pressure of its magma reservoir. However, the structure of the plumbing system of the volcano feeding such persistent active lava lake and the mechanisms controlling the architecture of magma storage remain unclear. Here, we combine high-resolution satellite optical imagery and radar interferometry (InSAR) to infer the shape, location and orientation of the conduits feeding the 2017 Erta Ale eruption. We show that the lava lake was rooted in a vertical dike-shaped reservoir that had been inflating prior to the eruption. The magma was subsequently transferred into a shallower feeder dike. We also find a shallow, horizontal magma lens elongated along axis inflating beneath the volcano during the later period of the eruption. Edifice stress modeling suggests the hydraulically connected system of horizontal and vertical thin magmatic bodies able to open and close are arranged spatially according to stresses induced by loading and unloading due to topographic changes. Our combined approach may provide new constraints on the organization of magma plumbing systems beneath volcanoes in continental and marine settings.

Atmospheric helium isotope composition as a tracer of volcanic emissions: A case study of Erta Ale volcano, Ethiopia

Abstract The composition of atmospheric helium is generally considered to be constant (3He/4He = 1.39 × 10− 6) on a large spatial scale. However, local variations may arise in tectonically active areas due to focussed degassing of one of its two isotopes, for example degassing of mantle-derived 3He or crustal-derived 4He. If detected, such variations have the potential to trace open conduit degassing of magmatic bodies and/or diffusive emissions from volcanic and/or crustal sources. Here, we test the possibility of detecting such variations in the Afar region of north-eastern Ethiopia, which is located over a well-developed rift system. Special attention was paid to the Erta Ale volcanic edifice, where both magma lake activity and strong degassing occur. We conducted high-precision 3He/4He ratio measurements of air samples from this region using an analytical facility at the Centre de Recherches Petrographiques et Geochimiques (CRPG), Nancy (France) that was specially designed for high-precision noble gas analyses. Within the precision of our measurements (0.2–0.4%, 95% confidence interval), the helium isotopic compositions of air from both the Afar rift zone and the crater zone of Erta Ale are similar to the composition of air collected at Brabois Park in Villers-les-Nancy, France (labelled here as RBB). An additional air sample collected in a large tank (500 cm3) in Afar in 2015 permitted replicate analysis (n = 8) and improved precision. The 3He/4He ratio of this additional sample was also identical to RBB within 0.19% (95% confidence interval, CI). However, a clear excess of 3He (1.32 ± 0.64%, 95% CI, relative to RBB based on a weighted mean of two samples) was detected in air collected above the active lava lake located in the central pit crater of Erta Ale volcano. Such excess requires a 3He flux of 0.15 ± 0.09 mol/yr from the crater lava lake to be sustained. A similar 3He flux of 0.12 ± 0.06 mol/yr is calculated from SO2 flux measurements and fumerolic gas data obtained during the same field trip. At several sites in the rim of the Northern crater, we conducted soil flux measurements using an accumulation chamber. Both the CO2 contents and the helium isotope ratios increased over time within the chamber, allowing us to evaluate the soil CO2 and 3He fluxes outside the lava lake area. These fluxes were found to be minor (~ 1%) compared to the lava lake flux. The CO2/3He ratio of (3.1 ± 0.7) × 109 of soil gases is comparable to that of the high temperature (1084 °C) fumaroles sited in the north pit crater. Using this ratio and our estimated 3He flux, we determined a CO2 flux of 4.6 ± 3.0 × 108 mol/yr for the lava lake, which is about 105 times lower than the global volcanic subaerial CO2 flux. Based on this pilot study, we suggest that 3He excesses in air could provide another means with which to evaluate the fluxes of CO2 and other volatile species in specific environments, such as highly active volcanic areas.

Lake Afrera, a structural depression in the Northern Afar Rift (Red Sea).

The boundary between the African and Arabian plates in the Southern Red Sea region is displaced inland in the northern Afar rift, where it is marked by the Red Sea-parallel Erta Ale, Alaita, and Tat Ali volcanic ridges. The Erta Ale is offset by about 20 and 40 km from the two en echelon ridges to the south. The offset area is highly seismic and marked by a depression filled by lake Afrera, a saline body of water fed by hydrothermal springs. Acoustic bathymetric profiles show ≈80 m deep canyons parallel to the NNW shore of the lake, part of a system of extensional normal faults striking parallel to the Red Sea. This system is intersected by oblique structures, some with strike-slip earthquakes, in what might evolve into a transform boundary. Given that the lake’s surface lies today about 112 m below sea level, the depressed (minus ≈190 m below sea level) lake’s bottom area may be considered the equivalent of the “nodal deep” in slow-slip oceanic transforms. The chemistry of the lake is compatible with the water having originated from hydrothermal liquids that had reacted with evaporites and basalts, rather than residual from evaporation of sea water. Bottom sediments include calcitic grains, halite and gypsum, as well as ostracod and diatom tests. The lake’s level appears to have dropped by over 10 m during the last ≈50 years, continuing a drying up trend of the last few thousand years, after a “wet” stage 9,800 and 7,800 years before present when according to Gasse (1973) Lake Afrera covered an area several times larger than at present. This “wet” stage corresponds to an early Holocene warm-humid climate that prevailed in Saharan and Sub Saharan Africa. Lake Abhé, located roughly 250 km south of Afrera, shows similar climate-driven oscillations of its level.

Volcanic gas composition, metal dispersion and deposition during explosive volcanic eruptions on the Moon

The transport of metals in volcanic gases on the Moon differs greatly from their transport on the Earth because metal speciation depends largely on gas composition, temperature, pressure and oxidation state. We present a new thermochemical model for the major and trace element composition of lunar volcanic gas during pyroclastic eruptions of picritic magmas calculated at 200–1500°C and over 10−9–103bar. Using published volatile component concentrations in picritic lunar glasses, we have calculated the speciation of major elements (H, O, C, Cl, S and F) in the coexisting volcanic gas as the eruption proceeds. The most abundant gases are CO, H2, H2S, COS and S2, with a transition from predominantly triatomic gases to diatomic gases with increasing temperatures and decreasing pressures. Hydrogen occurs as H2, H2S, H2S2, HCl, and HF, with H2 making up 0.5–0.8mol fractions of the total H. Water (H2O) concentrations are at trace levels, which implies that H-species other than H2O need to be considered in lunar melts and estimates of the bulk lunar composition. The Cl and S contents of the gas control metal chloride gas species, and sulfide gas and precipitated solid species. We calculate the speciation of trace metals (Zn, Ga, Cu, Pb, Ni, Fe) in the gas phase, and also the pressure and temperature conditions at which solids form from the gas. During initial stages of the eruption, elemental gases are the dominant metal species. As the gas loses heat, chloride and sulfide species become more abundant. Our chemical speciation model is applied to a lunar pyroclastic eruption model with isentropic gas decompression. The relative abundances of the deposited metal-bearing solids with distance from the vent are predicted for slow cooling rates (<5°C/s). Close to a volcanic vent we predict native metals are deposited, whereas metal sulfides dominate with increasing distance from the vent. Finally, the lunar gas speciation model is compared with the speciation of a H2O-, CO2- and Cl-rich volcanic gas from Erta Ale volcano (Ethiopia) as an analogy for more oxidized planetary eruptions. In the terrestrial Cl-rich gas the metals are predominantly transported as chlorides, as opposed to metallic vapors and sulfides in the lunar gas. Due to the presence of Cl-species, metal transport is more efficient in the volcanic gas from Erta Ale compared to the Moon.

Eruptive behavior of the Marum/Mbwelesu lava lake, Vanuatu and comparisons with lava lakes on Earth and Io

Observations from field remote sensing of the morphology, kinematics and temperature of the Marum/Mbwelesu lava lake in the Vanuatu archipelago in 2014 reveal a highly active, vigorously erupting lava lake. Active degassing and fountaining observed at the ~50m lava lake led to large areas of fully exposed lavas and rapid (~5m/s) movement of lava from the centers of upwelling outwards to the lake margins. These rapid lava speeds precluded the formation of thick crust; there was never more than 30% non-translucent crust. The lava lake was observed with several portable, handheld, low-cost, near-infrared imagers, all of which measured temperatures near 1000°C and one as high as 1022°C, consistent with basaltic temperatures. Fine-scale structure in the lava fountains and cooled crust was visible in the near infrared at ~5cm/pixel from 300m above the lake surface. The temperature distribution across the lake surface is much broader than at more quiescent lava lakes, peaking ~850°C, and is attributed to the highly exposed nature of the rapidly circulating lake. This lava lake has many characteristics in common with other active lava lakes, such as Erta Ale in Ethiopia, being confined, persistent and high-temperature; however it was much more active than is typical for Erta Ale, which often has >90% crust. Furthermore, it is a good analogue for the persistent, high-temperature lava lakes contained within volcanic depressions on Jupiter's moon Io, such as Pele, also believed from spacecraft and ground-based observations to exhibit similar behavior of gas emission, rapid overturn and fountaining.

Elevated gas flux and trace metal degassing from the 2014–2015 fissure eruption at the Bárðarbunga volcanic system, Iceland

AbstractThe 2014 Bárðarbunga rifting event in Iceland resulted in a 6‐month long eruption at Holuhraun. This eruption was characterized by high lava discharge rate and significant gas emission. The SO2 flux for the first 3 months was measured with satellite sensors and the petrologic method. High‐resolution time series of the satellite data give 1200 kg/s that concurs with 1050 kg/s obtained from melt inclusion minus degassed lava sulfur contents scaled to the mass of magma produced. A high‐purity gas sample, with elevated S/Cl due to limited chlorine degassing, reveals a similar degassing pattern of trace metals as observed at Kīlauea (Hawai'i) and Erta Ale (Ethiopia). This suggests a common degassing mechanism at mantle plume‐related volcanoes. The trace metal fluxes, calculated from trace element to sulfur ratios in the gas sample and scaled to the sulfur dioxide flux, are 1–2 orders of magnitude stronger at Holuhraun than Kīlauea and Erta Ale. In contrast, volcanoes at convergent margins (Etna and Stromboli, Italy) have 1–2 orders of magnitude higher trace element fluxes, most likely caused by abundant chlorine degassing. This emphasizes the importance of metal degassing as chlorine species. Short‐lived disequilibria between radon daughters, 210Pb‐210Bi‐210Po measured in the gas, suggest degassing of a continuously replenished magma batch beneath the eruption site. Earlier and deep degassing phase of carbon dioxide and polonium is inferred from low (210Po/210Pb) in the gas, consistent with magma transfer rate of 0.75 m/s.

Upper mantle temperature and the onset of extension and break-up in Afar, Africa

It is debated to what extent mantle plumes play a role in continental rifting and eventual break-up. Afar lies at the northern end of the largest and most active present-day continental rift, where the East African Rift forms a triple junction with the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden rifts. It has a history of plume activity yet recent studies have reached conflicting conclusions on whether a plume still contributes to current Afar tectonics. A geochemical study concluded that Afar is a mature hot rift with 80 km thick lithosphere, while seismic data have been interpreted to reflect the structure of a young, oceanic rift basin above mantle of normal temperature. We develop a self-consistent forward model of mantle flow that incorporates melt generation and retention to test whether predictions of melt chemistry, melt volume and lithosphere–asthenosphere seismic structure can be reconciled with observations. The rare-earth element composition of mafic samples at the Erta Ale, Dabbahu and Asal magmatic segments can be used as both a thermometer and chronometer of the rifting process. Low seismic velocities require a lithosphere thinned to 50 km or less. A strong positive impedance contrast at 50 to 70 km below the rift seems linked to the melt zone, but is not reproduced by isotropic seismic velocity alone. Combined, the simplest interpretation is that mantle temperature below Afar is still elevated at 1450 °C, rifting started around 22–23 Ma, and the lithosphere has thinned from 100 to 50 km to allow significant decompressional melting.

Temperatures, thermal structure, and behavior of eruptions at Kilauea and Erta Ale volcanoes using a consumer digital camcorder

Remote thermal monitoring of active volcanoes has many important applications for terrestrial and planetary volcanic systems. In this study, we describe observations of active eruptions on Kilauea and Erta Ale volcanoes using a short-wavelength, high-resolution, consumer digital camcorder and other non-imaging thermal detectors. These systems revealed brightness temperatures close to the eruption temperatures and temperature distributions, morphologies and thermal structures of flow features, tube systems and lava fountains. Lava flows observed by the camcorder through a skylight on Kilauea had a peak in maximum brightness temperatures at 1230°C and showed brightness temperature distributions consistent with most rapid flow at the center. Surface brightness temperatures of cooling lava flows on Kilauea were close to 850°C. Centimeter-scale thermal features are evident around pahoehoe ropes and inflated flows and stalactites in lava tubes. Observations of the fountaining Erta Ale lava lake in February 2011 extend the baseline of observations of the eruptive episode begun in late 2010. We observed a fountain using the camcorder and found a peak in maximum brightness temperatures at 1164°C, consistent with previous studies. Steep temperature gradients were observed across centimeter-scale distances between the highly exposed fountain and cracks and the much cooler lava lake surface and crater walls. The instrument and methods described here lead to robust pictures of the temperatures and temperature distributions at these volcanoes and reveal desired characteristics of planetary remote sensing platforms for the study of volcanically active bodies such as Io.

Sulfur degassing at Erta Ale (Ethiopia) and Masaya (Nicaragua) volcanoes: Implications for degassing processes and oxygen fugacities of basaltic systems

We investigate the relationship between sulfur and oxygen fugacity at Erta Ale and Masaya volcanoes. Oxygen fugacity was assessed utilizing Fe3+/∑Fe and major element compositions measured in olivine‐hosted melt inclusions and matrix glasses. Erta Ale melts have Fe3+/∑Fe of 0.15–0.16, reflecting fO2 of ΔQFM 0.0 ± 0.3, which is indistinguishable from fO2 calculated from CO2/CO ratios in high‐temperature gases. Masaya is more oxidized at ΔQFM +1.7 ± 0.4, typical of arc settings. Sulfur isotope compositions of gases and scoria at Erta Ale (δ34Sgas − 0.5‰; δ34Sscoria + 0.9‰) and Masaya (δ34Sgas + 4.8‰; δ34Sscoria + 7.4‰) reflect distinct sulfur sources, as well as isotopic fractionation during degassing (equilibrium and kinetic fractionation effects). Sulfur speciation in melts plays an important role in isotope fractionation during degassing and S6+/∑S is &lt;0.07 in Erta Ale melt inclusions compared to &gt;0.67 in Masaya melt inclusions. No change is observed in Fe3+/∑Fe or S6+/∑S with extent of S degassing at Erta Ale, indicating negligible effect on fO2, and further suggesting that H2S is the dominant gas species exsolved from the S2−‐rich melt (i.e., no redistribution of electrons). High SO2/H2S observed in Erta Ale gas emissions is due to gas re‐equilibration at low pressure and fixed fO2. Sulfur budget considerations indicate that the majority of S injected into the systems is emitted as gas, which is therefore representative of the magmatic S isotope composition. The composition of the Masaya gas plume (+4.8‰) cannot be explained by fractionation effects but rather reflects recycling of high δ34S oxidized sulfur through the subduction zone.

Trace elements in the gas emissions from the Erta Ale volcano, Afar, Ethiopia

High-temperature (1084 °C) fumarolic emissions from a spatter cone at the Erta Ale north pit crater granted a rare opportunity to collect Giggenbach bottles, condensates, and sublimates from the fumarolic gases of a rift/plume volcano in the immediate proximity of degassing lava. These results represent the highest-temperature gases sampled directly for trace elements and the first high-T fumarolic samples for a rift/plume volcano. Sixty-seven metals and metalloids were measured quantitatively by ICP-AES and ICP-MS in liquid gas condensates and solid sublimates. The total amount of trace elements in the gas (without Si) exceeded 170 ppm. The ten most abundant elements transported in nonsilicate modes were Na (61 ppm), Fe (41 ppm), K (32 ppm), Br (12.4 ppm), Cd (3.0 ppm), Se (2.3 ppm), Cu (2.0 ppm), Zn (2.0 ppm), Te (1.7 ppm), and As (1.2 ppm). The gases contained 27 ppb Re, 1.5 ppb Au, 0.5 ppb Pt, and 0.27 ppb Os. Rh- and Pd-containing phases were observed in solid sublimates. The only metal not detected by all analytical methods was ruthenium. Chalcophile elements (Cd, Cu, Zn, Se, Te, As) were transported primarily in the gaseous form. Alkali metals were emitted, at least partially, as liquid micron-size sulfate droplets, whereas alkali earths, aluminum, and REE had a high affinity to silicate aerosol in the form of basaltic microspheres. The silicate aerosol content was evaluated at 59 ppm on average but varied within a 7.5-fold range during sampling. Because of the extremely high temperature, refractory elements Ca, Ba, Ta, U, and LREE showed evidence of transport in the form of gaseous species. The SO2 flux in January 2011 was evaluated at 91 ± 24 t/d for the entire volcano, including ~ 31 t/d from the north crater and ~ 60 t/d from the lava lake. The daily output of trace elements from both Erta Ale craters (without Si) was estimated at 53 kg/d, including 20 kg of Na, 13.5 kg of Fe, 10.5 kg of K, 4.5 kg of chalcophile elements, 9 g of Re, 0.5 g of Au, and 0.17 g of Pt. The trace element pattern of Erta Ale fumarolic gases do not possess any distinct geochemical specialization and resemble TE patterns from fumarolic emissions of studied arc and plume volcanoes.

Integrated field, satellite and petrological observations of the November 2010 eruption of Erta Ale

Erta Ale volcano, Ethiopia, erupted in November 2010, emplacing new lava flows on the main crater floor, the first such eruption from the southern pit into the main crater since 1973, and the first eruption at this remote volcano in the modern satellite age. For many decades, Erta Ale has contained a persistently active lava lake which is ordinarily confined, several tens of metres below the level of the main crater, within the southern pit. We combine on-the-ground field observations with multispectral imaging from the SEVIRI satellite to reconstruct the entire eruptive episode beginning on 11 November and ending prior to 14 December 2010. A period of quiescence occurred between 14 and 19 November. The main eruptive activity developed between 19 and 22 November, finally subsiding to pre-eruptive levels between 8 and 15 December. The estimated total volume of lava erupted is ∼0.006 km3. The mineralogy of the 2010 lava is plagioclase + clinopyroxene + olivine. Geochemically, the lava is slightly more mafic than previously erupted lava lining the caldera floor, but lies within the range of historical lavas from Erta Ale. SIMS analysis of olivine-hosted melt inclusions shows the Erta Ale lavas to be relatively volatile-poor, with H2O contents ≤1,300 ppm and CO2 contents of ≤200 ppm. Incompatible trace and volatile element systematics of melt inclusions show, however, that the November 2010 lavas were volatile-saturated, and that degassing and crystallisation occurred concomitantly. Volatile saturation pressures are in the range 7–42 MPa, indicating shallow crystallisation. Calculated pre-eruption and melt inclusion entrapment temperatures from mineral/liquid thermometers are ∼1,150 °C, consistent with previously published field measurements.

Dike‐fault interaction during the 2004 Dallol intrusion at the northern edge of the Erta Ale Ridge (Afar, Ethiopia)

During continental rifting the interaction between faulting and magmatic intrusions is not well understood. Using InSAR and seismicity, we show that a ∼0.06 km3 dike was intruded along the Dallol segment, Ethiopia and was accompanied by a Mw 5.5 earthquake and associated fault slip along the western flank of the rift. The intrusion was fed by a previously unidentified magma chamber under Dallol. The total seismic moment release was ∼2.3 × 1017Nm, ∼10% of the geodetic moment. This is a higher proportion than during the 2005–2009 Dabbahu rifting episode, which ranged between 1–4% of the geodetic moment. A larger component of faulting occurs at Dallol than at Dabbahu segment, a feature we interpret to be related to the proximity (10 km) of the Dallol segment to the rift margin, where well‐developed faults facilitate slip.

Shallow axial magma chamber at the slow-spreading Erta Ale Ridge

Thermal models predict that spreading velocity at mid-ocean rifts should influence the geometry of the underlying magma chamber. InSAR data from the slow-spreading Ethiopian Rift identify a shallow, elongated magma chamber—a feature usually associated with fast-spreading rifts—beneath the Erta Ale segment, implying that spreading velocity may not be so important after all.

Cooling rate of some active lavas determined using an orbital imaging spectrometer

The surface temperature of an active lava flow is an important physical property to measure. Through its influence on lava crystallinity, cooling exerts a fundamental control on lava rheology. Remotely sensed thermal radiance data acquired by multispectral sensors such as Landsat Thematic Mapper and the Terra Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer are of insufficient spectral and radiometric fidelity to allow for realistic determination of lava surface temperatures from Earth orbit. This paper presents results obtained from the analysis of active lava flows using hyperspectral data acquired by NASA's Earth Observing‐1 Hyperion imaging spectrometer. The contiguous nature of the measured radiance spectrum in the 0.4–2.5 μm region means that, although sensor saturation most certainly occurs, unsaturated radiance data are always available from even the hottest, and most radiant, active lava flow surfaces. The increased number of wave bands available allows for the assumption of more complex flow surface temperature distributions in the radiance‐to‐temperature inversion processes. The technique is illustrated by using a hyperspectral image of the active lava lake at Erta Ale volcano, Ethiopia, a well‐characterized calibration target, a time series of three Hyperion images of an active lava flow acquired during a 4 day period at Mount Etna, Sicily, as well as a lava flow erupted at Nyamuragira, Democratic Republic of Congo. The results provide insights into the temperature–radiance mixture modeling problem that will aid in the analysis of data acquired by future hyperspectral remote sensing missions, such as NASA's proposed HyspIRI mission.

Regional thermal and terrain modelling of the Afar Depression from MODIS multi‐temporal monthly night LST data

Multi‐temporal MODIS thermal imagery isolates geothermal from seasonal land surface temperature (LST) variability in Afar Depression and identifies localized LST thermal anomalies during the September 2005 seismo‐volcanic crisis. The interpretation of the monthly night annual imagery sequences and time series analysis proved that in the northern and the central parts, LST is maximized throughout the year. The two regions lie along the NW‐SE trending Red Sea Propagator, which is the on‐land southern termination of the Red Sea Rift. Linear regression analysis proved that LST variation is terrain elevation dependent. Terrain segmentation outlined 5 terrain classes. The localized geothermal activity during the September 2005 seismic‐volcanic crisis activity in both Erta Ale and Dabbahu vicinity was revealed by combined terrain‐LST modelling. The LST statistics of the segmented terrain classes revealed that in September 2005, a regional minor increase in LST also affected the four classes with positive elevation.

Radiant flux from Earth's subaerially erupting volcanoes

During the past decade an average of 60 volcanoes erupted each year, around 20 of which were erupting on any given day. Some of these, such as Erta Ale in Ethiopia, are persistently active, whereas others, such as Bezymianny in Russia, erupt more sporadically. Satellite remote sensing offers a convenient way to monitor changes in the thermal budgets of these volcanoes from space. Using data acquired by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) sensor, we show how the amount of heat radiated into the Earth's atmosphere by 65 active volcanoes has varied between 26 February 2000 and 31 December 2006. We find that the radiant volcanic heat flux into the atmosphere occurs at a relatively steady‐state baseline level, superimposed on which are large thermal emission ‘spikes’. These anomalous emission events are associated with the emplacement of basaltic ‘a’a lava flows at volcanoes such as Mount Etna, Italy, and Nyamuragira, in the Democratic Republic of Congo. We also demonstrate how these data can be used to estimate lava effusion rates during effusive eruptions, and magma flux rates at persistently active volcanoes that host active lava lakes.

Modeling lava lake heat loss, rheology, and convection

Measurements at Erta Ale's lava lake and theoretical equations for lake rheology, density driven convection and thermally‐driven plume ascent allow the constraint of lake dynamics. Cooling and crystallization expected from surface heat losses imply a viscosity increase from 150 Pa s to 300–1800 Pa s for cooled surface layers. Convection is expected to proceed vigorously under low viscosity conditions driving rapid (0.1–0.4 m s−1) surface motions and sluggishly under moderate‐to‐high viscosity conditions to drive slower motions (&lt;0.08 m s−1). Convection is likely driven by small (∼6 kg m−3) density differences, where surface cooling can influence lake rheology and explain variable rates of surface convective motion.

The volcano–seismic crisis in Afar, Ethiopia, starting September 2005

We describe the seismo–volcanic crisis that occurred in northern Afar in late 2005, which involved 15 earthquakes greater than M5 and a small explosive silicic eruption from a vent called Da'Ure (at 12.651°N., 40.519°N) close to Dabbahu volcano. The purpose is to pull together the different sources of information into a coherent preliminary interpretation of what happened. The main geophysical data are the locations of the largest earthquakes, and a radar interferogram of unusually high quality that reveals injection of a 60 km long dyke with surface deformation expressed as normal faulting. Subsidence occurred around the Dabbahu volcanic edifice. Most of the dyke is likely to have been basaltic rather than silicic although the eruption was silicic. The volume of the subsidence represents at most 25% of the magma injected into the dyke. The silicic eruption was possibly triggered by interaction of basaltic magma with a shallow silicic reservoir. At about the same time as the eruption and dyking episode, some activity appears also to have taken place at the lava lake at Erta Ale volcano, some 150 km to the north of the eruption site. We evaluate the possibility that there may be some link by calculating stresses associated with opening of the fissure and looking at the activity of the lava lake as revealed by the thermal anomaly seen by weather satellites.

Regional and local tectonics at Erta Ale caldera, Afar (Ethiopia)

Erta Ale volcano lies along the on-shore Red Sea Rift (northern Afar, Ethiopia), separating the Nubia and Danakil plates. Erta Ale has a NNW–SSE elongated caldera, with a subvertical rim scarp, hosting a lava lake. Structural field work was aimed at defining the deformation pattern around the caldera. The caldera consists of along-rim and across-rim structures, resulting from local and regional (maximum extension ∼NE–SW) stress fields, respectively. These structures cross-cut each other at high angles, suggesting that the two stress fields remain distinct, each prevailing during rifting or caldera collapse. The local along-rim extensional fractures are gravity-driven structures that formed due to the retreat of the caldera wall after collapse, and are confined to the region of caldera subsidence. The across-rim structures are mainly located to the N and S of the caldera, where they form rift zones each accommodating a similar amount of extension (∼6.3 m), but displaying different trends and extension directions. Analogue models of interacting fractures are consistent with the Southern Rift being representative of the regional fault kinematics, while the Northern Rift is a local perturbation, resulting from the interaction between two right-stepping rift segments along the Erta Ale Range.