Errorless Learning Procedure Research Articles

New Semantic Learning and Generalization in a Patient With Amnesia.

New learning of semantic information is impaired in amnesia. Several reports have demonstrated that "errorless" learning techniques have allowed patients with amnesia to acquire at least some form of new semantic information, although this information appears to be relatively inflexible. Using insights and principles from connectionist modeling of cortical and medial temporal lobe memory systems, the authors describe why errorless learning procedures act as a poor proxy for the medial temporal lobe, suggesting that they artificially eliminate the variability that defines semantic information. The authors trained a patient with severe amnesia on new semantic sentences both with and without variance and then tested him on both repeated and related novel sentences to assess generalization. He successfully learned new semantic information in both conditions but demonstrated better generalization of semantic concepts following training with variance.

Comprehensive ABA programs: Integrating and evaluating the implementation of varied instructional approaches.

There are a number of instructional approaches available within ABA, each of which is uniquely suited to address specific deficits in learners with Autism Spectrum Disorders. Clinicians can utilize a combination of Discrete Trial Instruction (DTT), naturalistic strategies, and rate-building procedures to maximize the acquisition, generalization, and availability of skills. Treatment integrity protocols are essential in training staff, in providing ongoing feedback to staff, and in ensuring high quality instruction for this diversity of instructional techniques. Key words: Autism Spectrum Disorders, Discrete Trial Training, naturalistic strategies, rate-building procedures, staff training and feedback ********** INTENSIVE TEACHING Discrete trial training (DTT) uses repetition and sequenced instruction to build core skills in students with autism (Lovaas, 1981; Lovaas, Koegel, Simmons, & Long, 1973; Smith, 1993). It has been successful in teaching a wide variety of skills in a structured, formalized context. Elements of its effective use include errorless learning procedures (e.g., Etzel & LeBlanc, 1979; Lancioni & Smeets, 1986; Terrace, 1963; Touchette & Howard, 1984) and task variation and interspersal (e.g., Dunlap, 1984; Mace, Hock, Lalli, West, Belfiore, Pinter, & Brown, 1988; Winterling, Dunlap, & O'Neill, 1987; Zarcone, Iwata, Hughes, & Vollmer, 1993). These strategies diverge from some historical applications of DTI, which often utilized blocks of identical target trials and procedures which allowed for repeated errors. Discrete trial instruction is still very useful for teaching skills to children with autism, and its utility has not been eliminated with the emphasis on more naturalistic approaches. DTT is well suited to teaching skills requiring repetition, to teaching skills that are not intrinsically motivating, and to building solid repertoires of tacting, imitation, and receptive skills (e.g. Sundberg & Partington, 1998; 1999). Naturalistic Teaching Over the past two decades within ABA, there has been a strong focus on the use of naturalistic teaching methodologies to meet the needs of learners with autism. Incidental teaching emphasizes getting an elaborated response from the individual, after they have initiated interest in an item or a topic (Hart & Risley, 1982). Incidental teaching has been shown to be a powerful instructional methodology for building initiation skills and a wide variety of language and conversation skills (e.g., Farmer-Dougan, 1994; McGee, Krantz, & McClannahan, 1985; 1986). Furthermore, incidental teaching procedures have been shown to have substantial generalization advantages, compared to discrete trial teaching (McGee, Krantz, & McClannahan, 1985). These are substantial benefits, as the strength of DTT is in building responsivity, and relative weaknesses include failure to build initiation skills or generalize without additional training. In incidental teaching, the teacher arranges the environment to spark the learner's interest. The learner then initiates a request or a conversation about a particular item or topic. The teacher prompts an elaboration of that initiation, and a more elaborate communication from the learner results in access to the desired item (Fenske, Krantz, & McClannahan, 2001). One of the most substantial advantages of an incidental approach over a DTT approach is that the learner is leading the teaching interaction. The learner's interests set the occasion for and drive the instruction (Fenske, Krantz, & McClannahan, 2001). Incidental teaching continues to be an excellent way to build spontaneity, increase initiation, and shape the complexity and sophistication of communication. Other naturalistic methodologies within ABA have emphasized learner interests. Pivotal Response Training (PRT) and Natural Language Paradigm (NLP) emphasize the use of intrinsically motivating materials, teaching in natural contexts, and using the child's interests to guide instruction in language (Koegel, Koegel, & Surrat, 1992; Koegel, O'Dell, & Koegel, 1987; Laski, Charlop, & Schreibman, 1988). …

M emory Notebook Training in a Case of Severe Amnesia: Generalising from Paired Associate Learning to Real Life

A severely amnesic patient was trained to use a notebook as a record for daily events in an attempt to reduce his tendency to ask questions repeatedly. In the first stage of the study, a novel paired associate learning procedure was used as a means of training Mr S to become reliant on a notebook for information he could not remember. This notebook training incorporated a comparison of errorless and errorful methods of learning. Mr S learned successfully using the notebook and showed a clear advantage for the errorless method. In the second stage of the study, the errorless learning procedure was used as a means of training Mr S to look up facts about his daily routine. Comparison of his behaviour before and after the diary training indicated a reduction in his repetitive questioning about daily events. Subsequent visits to Mr S indicate continued use of the notebook. The study shows how artificial learning procedures can be adapted to achieve a practical goal.

THE ERRORS OF FADING AND THE SHAPE OF THINGS TO COME: A RESPONSE TO JONES AND EAYRS

AbstractJones & Eayrs (1992) provide a valuable critique of the use of errorless learning procedures with individuals with learning disabilities. The current paper concurs with the generally negative conclusions of this review regarding procedures involving the use, and intended subsequent fading, of task‐irrelevant prompting stimuli. The value of this fading approach is contrasted, however, with the impact of shaping procedures which involve the enhancement or adjustment of task‐relevant cues. Shaping procedures appear to avoid many of the problems highlighted by Jones & Eayrs. Further, they offer the prospect of a powerful intervention technology consistent with behaviour‐analytic approaches and yet in sympathy with more intuitive understandings of what constitute effective learning environments.

The stability and transferability of errorless learning in children with Down syndrome

An errorless learning procedure was used to teach discrimination to two groups of children with learning disabilities, one composed of children with Down syndrome, the other of children without Down syndrome. Both groups responded positively to errorless teaching, with the children with Down syndrome requiring fewer training trials and showing better retention of the target discrimination than the children without Down syndrome. The errorless technique proved to have little value in teaching children with Down syndrome discrimination skills per se, however, since they showed little evidence of any transfer of learning to a second discrimination task. Errorless teaching strategies may nevertheless have an important role to play in increasing motivation to learn in children with Down syndrome, being most effective when used in conjunction with conventional trial-and-error methods.

Small-group instruction for students with learning disabilities: observational and incidental learning.

This study evaluated the effectiveness and efficiency of constant time delay (a near errorless learning procedure) in a small-group instructional arrangement. Three fifth-grade students with learning disabilities were taught to recognize multisyllabic basal vocabulary words. A multiple-probe design across behaviors (word sets) was used to evaluate the procedure. Following instruction on each word set, students were assessed on their ability to recognize their own target words, recognize observational words, spell both target and observational words, and define both target and observational words. The results indicated that the constant time-delay procedure was reliably implemented and was effective in establishing criterion-level performance for all students with extremely low error percentages.

Teaching coin discrimination

Seven mildly mentally handicapped children aged between 6 and 11 years were taught to identify a 10p piece using an errorless learning procedure. These children each underwent 10 trials in which they were presented with two items. One item was a 10p piece, the other item varied depending on the current stage of the programme. The children had to identify the 10p piece and they were reinforced if they made the correct identification. A post‐test was then carried out — each child had to identify the three 10p pieces which were in a selection of nine coins placed in the child's hand. Six of the seven children learned the discrimination and the results (t = 7.10, df = 6, p < 0.001) show a significant difference between the error scores on the post‐test and pre‐test. Very few errors were made during training. These results support the validity and utility of the errorless learning procedure.

The simplest treatment alternative: the law of parsimony applied to choosing appropriate instructional control and errorless-learning procedures for the difficult-to-teach child.

A method for choosing effective teaching procedures for difficult-to-teach children is proposed. Assessment of child responses during teaching that involves gradually increasing environmental support in the learning setting is the basis for choice. The levels of environmental support in which child responses are assessed are (1) trial-and-error procedures; (2) increased environmental support involving analyses of reinforcement systems, incompatible responses, and prerequisite skills, as well as the most effective use of instructional control; and (3) errorless-learning procedures. Effects of instructions upon learning are discussed in terms of instructional detail and pacing, as well as with respect to the role of instructions in feedback and progressively delayed cue procedures. Stimulus shaping and stimulus fading are discussed in terms of the effectiveness of each for teaching children who have difficulty learning with more traditional procedures. The importance of the incorporation of criterion-related cues when utilizing stimulus shaping or fading is emphasized. It is proposed that an assessment of child responses should be made with respect to the three general levels of environmental support, as well as from sublevels within these, in order to choose the simplest but still effective alternative procedure for teaching difficult-to-teach children.