Erroneous Translation Research Articles

Machine Translation Testing via Syntactic Tree Pruning

Machine translation systems have been widely adopted in our daily life, making life easier and more convenient. Unfortunately, erroneous translations may result in severe consequences, such as financial losses. This requires to improve the accuracy and the reliability of machine translation systems. However, it is challenging to test machine translation systems because of the complexity and intractability of the underlying neural models. To tackle these challenges, we propose a novel metamorphic testing approach by syntactic tree pruning (STP) to validate machine translation systems. Our key insight is that a pruned sentence should have similar crucial semantics compared with the original sentence. Specifically, STP (1) proposes a core semantics-preserving pruning strategy by basic sentence structures and dependency relations on the level of syntactic tree representation, (2) generates source sentence pairs based on the metamorphic relation, and (3) reports suspicious issues whose translations break the consistency property by a bag-of-words model. We further evaluate STP on two state-of-the-art machine translation systems (i.e., Google Translate and Bing Microsoft Translator) with 1,200 source sentences as inputs. The results show that STP accurately finds 5,073 unique erroneous translations in Google Translate and 5,100 unique erroneous translations in Bing Microsoft Translator (400% more than state-of-the-art techniques), with 64.5% and 65.4% precision, respectively. The reported erroneous translations vary in types and more than 90% of them are not found by state-of-the-art techniques. There are 9,393 erroneous translations unique to STP, which is 711.9% more than state-of-the-art techniques. Moreover, STP is quite effective in detecting translation errors for the original sentences with a recall reaching 74.0%, improving state-of-the-art techniques by 55.1% on average.

Titles of Acts: Translation from English into Russian

The article examines titles of English acts such as ‘The Act of Settlement 1701’, ‘The Instrument of Government 1653’, ‘The Act of Supremacy; 1534, 1559, ‘The Reform Act’ 1832, 1867, 1884 and ‘The Test Act’ 1673, 1678 and their translation into the Russian language. The analysis of textbooks and manuals on law and state history of foreign countries in the Russian language shows that their authors refer to the titles that have firmly entrenched in the Russian language, even though some of them have been translated incorrectly. Some researchers provide their own mostly word-for-word translation or totally avoid mentioning the titles of acts in the text. At the same time, adequate translation is essential as it allows readers to elicit necessary information and gain extensive and comprehensive knowledge on the subject. The polysemy of legal terms and the underlying historical background make the process of translation into Russian even more complicated. The differences between legal systems and languages due to their unique historical and cultural development cause difficulties in the translation process even for the most advanced machine translation tools based on neural networks. In order for the translation to be accurate, and therefore the cognitive function to be fully performed in academic texts, it is necessary to be familiar with the field of legal science as a whole, to take into account the historical context as well as the background of a particular act. The lack of background knowledge and the inability to grasp the meaning, role and importance of this or that act of Parliament results in word-for-word erroneous translation that in its turn distorts the original meaning of the text. The polysemy of English terms makes it difficult to find the corresponding equivalent term in Russian. Descriptive translation based on background knowledge with due regard for language peculiarities, as well as the use of such tools as footnotes and comments, can contribute to achieving the purpose.

About the definition of the terms “management” and “upravlinnya/keruvannya” in the DSTU ISO 9000 series of standards

The issue of replacing the term “upravlinnya/keruvannya” with the term “management” in the DSTU ISO 9000 series of standards is considered.
 The initiators of the replacement believe that the authors of the national standard DSTU ISO 9000:2015 Quality management systems. Fundamentals and vocabulary made erroneous translation of the term “management”, since the concept of “management” has a much broader meaning than the concept of “upravlinnya/keruvannya”, and this negatively affects the development of the Ukrainian economy. The initiators of the replacement insist on the immediate correction of this error in the DSTU ISO 9000 series of standards. To support these claims, the initiators have amassed numerous expert opinions, comments and other materials, the basis of which was the Russian-language edition of the ISO 9000:2015 standard, as well as long ago cancelled and replaced standards in the field of quality management. The reference to Russian-language publications is based on the fact that Russian is one of the three official languages of the ISO.
 The proposed replacement of the translation of the term “management” in the standard DSTU ISO 9000:2015 Quality management systems. Fundamentals and vocabulary was analysed. The equivalence of the concepts of “upravlinnya/keruvannya” and “management” is substantiated. The examples demonstrating the erroneous interpretation of the concept of “management” are given. Complying with the requirements of 6.1.5 DSTU 1.5:2015 National standardization. Rules of development and presentation of national normative documents for the use of foreign words and terms in the presence of equivalent words and terms in the Ukrainian language is stressed.

Мемлекеттік тілді заңның тілі ретінде қалыптастыру

Мақалада елімізде заңдардың ресми орыс тілінде әзірленіп, қабылдануынан кейін мәтінін мемлекеттік тілге аударудың салдары туралы мәселелер талқыланған. Авторлар мемлекеттің егемендігіне тұрақтылық беретін қасиеттің бірі ретінде мемлекеттік тілдің мәртебесін көтеру өте маңызды екеніне көз жеткізген. Орыс тілінен қазақ тіліне аударылған заңның мәтініндегі дұрыс емес әрі түсініксіз аударылған баптарды құқыққолдану тәжірибесінде қолдануда қиындықтар кездесетіні мәлім. Сонымен қатар ҚР Азаматтық кодексі (Жалпы бөлім), ҚР Азаматтық кодексі (Ерекше бөлім), ҚР Кәсіпкерлік кодексі, ҚР «Қайырымдылық туралы» Заңының орыс және қазақ тілдеріндегі мәтіндеріндегі теңтүпнұсқалық қағидасына сәйкес келмейтін кейбір қате аудармаларды айқындап, олардың дұрыс аудармалары ұсынылған. Қате аудармалардың орын алу себебі заң шығару процесінде заңдық техника талаптарының, соның ішінде, заңдық лингвистика бойынша заңдық терминологияларды аударуда бірізділіктің сақталмауынан деген қорытынды жасалған. Мақала авторлары заңдардың қазақ тіліндегі мәтіндерінен анықталған қате аудармаларға талдау жүргізе отырып, мемлекеттік тілімізді заңның тіліне айналдырудың құқықтық тетіктерін ұсынған. Қорытындыда осындай құқықтық реттеу тетігін орнату жолымен ғана мемлекеттік тілді заңның тілі ретінде қалыптастыру мәселесін шешу қажеттігі негізделген.

Translation ethics in the light of the Chinese ecological model of translation

Translation is a kind of cross-cultural interaction of people, and ethical relations have existed since the emergence of human relations. The main task of the translator is to coordinate relations between different cultures, languages and subjects of translation, therefore, the role of the translator is closely linked to ethics from the very beginning of the translation activity, and the activities and duties of the translator are carried out ethically consciously. The purpose of the study is to describe the study of translation ethics in China and a detailed study of translation ethics from the point of view of the ecological model of translation. The author shows how erroneous translations can be caused by the irresponsible behavior of translators due to their incorrect ethical views and values. In this process, the author uses an analytical method and a comparative method. According to the results of the study, it was concluded that, theoretically, it is necessary to continue improving the value and ethical aspects of the ecological model of translation; as for the existing problem of incorrect translation, according to the author, efforts should be made to create a beneficial cycle of translation ecology. Against the background of numerous research perspectives, the science of translation attaches importance to translators, returns to ethics and focuses on relationships and behavior in the system of moral values. The results of the study are important for the improvement of the Chinese translation, the development of translation theory and the training of translators.

“False friends” of the translator as asymmetric dialexemes, causes of occurrence

The article deals with the phenomenon of linguistic asymmetry, whichimplies an erroneous translation of the language units of the source language due to thephonetic similarity with the units of the translating language. The author addresses theproblem of similarity and apparent identity in the analysis of several typologiesdeveloped by scientists. From the point of view of the content plan, the followingfeatures of interlanguage synonyms can be distinguished: coincidence in some meaningsand discrepancy in others; generic meaning in one language, specific meaning inanother; discrepancies related to the transmission of realities; differences in stylisticcharacteristics; differences in lexical compatibility. From the point of view of the plan ofexpression, the disparity in some synonyms and the equivalence of the volumes ofconcepts are noticeable in others. The last group is words that have different meaningsbut belong to the same semantic field. These functional interferents clearly show thefollowing logical and semantic relationships: causal, based on size, common functioning,based on the manufacturing process, etc.

Visualization-based improvement of neural machine translation

We introduce a novel visual-interactive approach for analyzing, understanding, and correcting neural machine translation. Our system supports users in automatically translating documents using neural machine translation and identifying and correcting possible erroneous translations. User corrections can then be used to fine-tune the neural machine translation model and automatically improve the whole document. While translation results of neural machine translation can be impressive, there are still many challenges such as over- and under-translation, domain-specific terminology, and handling long sentences, making it necessary for users to verify translation results. Our system aims at supporting users in this task. Our visual analytics approach combines several visualization techniques in an interactive system. A parallel coordinates plot with multiple metrics related to translation quality can be used to find, filter, and select translations that might contain errors. An interactive beam search visualization and graph- or matrix-based visualizations for attention weights can be used for post-editing and understanding machine-generated translations. The machine translation model is updated from user corrections to improve the translation quality of the whole document. We designed our approach for an LSTM-based translation model and extended it to also include the Transformer architecture. We show for representative examples possible mistranslations and how to use our system to deal with them. A user study revealed that many participants favor such a system over manual text-based translation, especially for translating large documents. Furthermore, we performed quantitative computer-based experiments that show that our system can be used to improve translation quality and reduce post-editing efforts for domain-specific documents.

Responding to Students’ Errors in Online Practical Translation Classes

In practical translation classes it is inevitable that students make translation errors. Making errors is in fact a characteristic of translation training process, and the role of the teacher is to respond and offer timely and appropriate correction/feedback so that students are able to differentiate between correct and erroneous translations. Training students to develop the ability to produce correct and accurate translation is part and parcel of any practical translation classes. This paper, which has a pedagogical nature, investigates the treatment of students’ errors in online practical translation classes. It extends the area of ‘responding to errors’ to translation studies, on the one hand, and to online classes, on the other hand. Following Thompson’s (2007) model of responding to errors, the paper attempts to find out when and how teachers respond to translation errors made by students in online English-Kurdish practical translation classes. The results show that the teachers respond to the vast majority of translation errors occurred in the course of the online classes. In terms of time, the teachers never interrupted students instantly but waited until the end of translation units or utterances and then responded to the errors. In terms of the method of responding, the results revealed that the teachers mostly focused on meaning and used various techniques of error responding, including students’ involvement and offering their own corrections (with or without feedback). These results, coupled with critical comments provided, are hoped to offer useful insights to would-be translation teachers and trainers to better understand how and when to respond to students’ errors in online practical translation classes.

A Framework for Validation of Synthesized MicroElectrode Dot Array Actuations for Digital Microfluidic Biochips

Digital Microfluidics is an emerging technology for automating laboratory procedures in biochemistry. With more and more complex biochemical protocols getting mapped to biochip devices and microfluidics receiving a wide adoption, it is becoming indispensable to develop automated tools and synthesis platforms that can enable a smooth transformation from complex cumbersome benchtop laboratory procedures to biochip execution. Given an informal/semi-formal assay description and a target microfluidic grid architecture on which the assay has to be implemented, a synthesis tool typically translates the high-level assay operations to low-level actuation sequences that can drive the assay realization on the grid. With more and more complex biochemical assay protocols being taken up for synthesis and biochips supporting a wider variety of operations (e.g., MicroElectrode Dot Arrays (MEDAs)), the task of assay synthesis is getting intricately complex. Errors in the synthesized assay descriptions may have undesirable consequences in assay operations, leading to unacceptable outcomes after execution on the biochips. In this work, we focus on the challenge of examining the correctness of synthesized protocol descriptions, before they are taken up for realization on a microfluidic biochip. In particular, we take up a protocol description synthesized for a MEDA biochip and adopt a formal analysis method to derive correctness proofs or a violation thereof, pointing to the exact operation in the erroneous translation. We present experimental results on a few bioassay protocols and show the utility of our framework for verifiable protocol synthesis.

Sobre el uso de los conceptos de ciclo de vida e historia de vida en ecología y evolución

The concepts of life cycle and life history are widely used in ecology and evolution, but there is no formal definition of both concepts. In this assessment the concepts used in the literature in hierarchical terms are reviewed. The main problems detected were associated with the object of the definition (individuals versus organisms) and the hierarchy (individuals, populations, species). Additionally, problems were detected in the use of both concepts associated with erroneous translations from the texts from English to Spanish. It is suggested the use of the concepts of life cycle and life history of Lincoln et al. 1998: “Life cycle is the sequence of events from the origin as a zygote, until the death of an individual”; “Significant characteristics of the life cycle through which an organism passes, with particular reference to the strategies that influence survival and reproduction.” Finally, it is important not to confuse both concepts, not treat them as synonyms, and their use from a hierarchical perspective, therefore, must be explicit if referring to individuals, populations, species or other evolutionary lineage of interest.

Peranan Keterampilan Membaca pada Proses Prapenerjemahan dalam Mencapai Kesepadanan Teks Terjemahan

This study examines what strategies are most likely to be used by students when translating as well as the equivalence level of the translated texts. It aims to find out the appropriate reading strategy when translating. This study uses a qualitative paradigm because it seeks to explain a phenomenon about the choice of reading strategies used by students and the equivalence equivalence level of the translated texts. This research produces descriptive data in the form of patterns of reading strategy when students translate two different kinds of texts. In this study, data collection was carried out in two ways, namely questionnaires and translating test. Questionnaire was used to obtain data about the reading strategies chosen by students when translating. The questionnaire used is a closed type in the form of multiple choice. Each item has a different value. From the results of the analysis presented, it can be seen that most students still show a tendency to use bottom-up strategies in the process of translating. In addition, it can be seen that the choice of reading strategy can influence the results of translation. Some translations produced by students who tend to use bottom-up strategies in the translation process are not context-specific and still seem hard to read and unnatural. While around 80% of translations resulting from top-down strategies are considered acceptable because they are in accordance with the rules of the target language and sentence context. In addition, this research can also show that relying solely on one reading strategy can potentially produce erroneous translations.

Algorithm for Processing Queries that Involve Boolean Columns for a Natural Language Interface to Databases

In the last decades, the use of natural language interfaces to databases (NLIDBs) has increased exponentialy; unfortunately, the complexity of natural language has limited their effectiveness. The presence of Boolean columns in databases increases the difficulty for translating natural language queries to SQL. A Boolean column is a column that can only store two possible values: true/false, yes/no, 1/0. The problem for processing queries that involve Boolean columns, is that the search value for these columns (true/false, yes/no, 1/0) is not explicit in the queries. This problem makes NLIDBs generate erroneous translations as shown in experimental tests. A survey of the literature on NLIDBs has shown that this problem has not been identified, much less addressed. In this article, a new algorithm for processing queries that involve Boolean columns is presented. The algorithm uses syntactic and semantic information that facilitates detecting Boolean columns and their implicit values in a query. The experimental tests show that it is highly effective for translating this type of queries.

Translating grammatical collocations from Macedonian into English in journalistic texts

This study deals with grammatical collocations, and investigates how successfully these are translated from Macedonian into English in journalistic texts. A small-sized parallel corpus was compiled for the purposes of this study, comprising 14 long news articles (7originally written in Macedonian and their respective translations into English) all of which were published in the Macedonian daily newspaper “Nezavisen”. Somewhat over 100 grammatical collocations have been extracted from the original texts and these were consequently compared with their renderings in English. In analyzing the results both the qualitative and quantitative paradigm were considered. The study was based on two hypotheses:1) a considerable number of erroneous translations of the grammatical collocations will occur in the target texts, and 2) the lexical patterning of the Macedonian collocations differ greatly from the lexical patterning of their English counterparts. The research yielded some interesting and unexpected findings as both hypotheses were proven wrong. KEYWORDS: grammatical collocations, journalistic texts, translation

Биосенсоры для исследования активности промоторов и шаперонов в клетках Bacillus subtilis

Plasmids to determine the activities of promoters in Bacillus subtilis cells have been constructed. Plasmids contain constitutive (PfbaA, PymdA_mut3, PymdA) and inducible (PxylA, PxylA-cre) promoters of different activities and genes under their control encoding reporter proteins with different thermostability and structure. The following main parameters were measured: maximal response, threshold concentration, minimal response time and the effect of catabolite repression for the inducible promoters. The activities of the constitutive promoters were compared. It was shown that the activity of the inducible PxylA promoter at a D(+)-xylose concentration of 1% was more than 100-fold higher and that of the PxylA-cre promoter was about 80-fold higher than the control level after 2 h of incubation. However, PxylA-cre is tightly closed and sensitive to glucose repression. The constructed lux sensors containing bacterial luciferases as reporter proteins were used to assess the influence of DnaKJE and trigger factor (TF) molecular chaperones on the level of synthesis of active enzymes. It was shown that the absence of both of the above chaperones in B. subtilis cells led to a significant decrease in the synthesis of the native thermolabile Photobacterium leiognathi luciferase, while the lack of TF increased the activity of the thermostable Photorhabdus luminescens luciferase by about 2 times as compared to wild type Bacillus subtilus 168. Erroneous translation under the streptomycin action and in the absence of both DnaKJE and TF chaperones significantly suppressed the synthesis of both luciferases. Bacillus subtilis, bacterial luciferase, biosensor, bioluminescence, promoter, chaperone, Trigger Factor, DnaKJ The work of I. Manukhov was supported by the Russian Science Foundation under the grant 20-16-00088. E. Gnuchikh's research on the design of lux-biosensors was partially funded by the Russian Foundation for Basic Research (project No. 20-34-70132).

Regulation of tRNA-dependent translational quality control.

Translation is the most error-prone process in protein synthesis; however, it is important that accuracy is maintained because erroneous translation has been shown to affect all domains of life. Translational quality control is maintained by both proteins and RNA through intricate processes. The aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases help maintain high levels of translational accuracy through the esterification of tRNA and proofreading mechanisms. tRNA is often recognized by an aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase in a sequence and structurally dependent manner, sometimes involving modified nucleotides. Additionally, some proofreading mechanisms of aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases require tRNA elements for hydrolysis of a noncognate aminoacyl-tRNA. Finally, tRNA is also important for proper decoding of the mRNA message by codon and anticodon pairing. Here, recent developments regarding the importance of tRNA in maintenance of translational accuracy are reviewed. © 2019 IUBMB Life, 2019 © 2019 IUBMB Life, 71(8):1150-1157, 2019.

ANALYSIS OF DEFICIENCIES IN THE PROCEDURES FOR THE RISK MANAGEMENT OF SAFETY IN THE ICAO DOCUMENTS

The article is devoted to the analysis of inaccuracies in the terminology and in the description of safety management procedures associated with both shortcomings in the documents of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) and incorrect, and sometimes simply erroneous translation of certain provisions of the documents from English into Russian. As well known, all ICAO documents are originally written in English and correct translation is extremely important for their adequate understanding and application in practice. This is especially important for Russian airlines, as methodological developments on the implementation of safety management systems (SMS) at the state level are not enough. Experience in the development and implementation of SMS in airlines shows that due to inaccuracies in ICAO documents there are additional difficulties. Accordingly, there is a broad and often subjective interpretation of a number of ICAO Rube provisions in airlines, which leads to a conflict of priorities and irrational use of resources of airline and other aviation enterprises. The article notes with a demonstration of specific examples that in each new ICAO document in Russian the names of components and elements of the conceptual framework (structure) of the SMS of the service provider change, although in the original English version these names are constant since 2006.The main methodological difficulties in the development and implementation of the SMS by service providers are associated with risk management, and it is in this part that the greatest number of inaccuracies in the documents is observed. It is shown, in particular, that the term "Risk Factor" appeared in the ICAO SMM due to the erroneous translation into Russian of the English term "Safety Risk", and its use in parallel with the term "Hazard" in high-level documents (the Air Code of the Russian Federation, article 24.1 and in the Decree of the Russian Federation Government from 18.11.2014 No 1215) introduces additional confusion at the level of air enterprises in the understanding of risk management within the technocratic concept of risk.

Investigative Notes on Muhammad Marmaduke Pickthall’s Translation of the Qur’anic Surahs’ Names

The Meaning of The Glorious Qur’an of Muhammad Marmaduke is one of the earliest English translations of the Qur’an conducted by Muslims’ translators and the first translation conducted by an English-speaking Muslim scholar. This translation of the Qur’an has been the focus of a number of studies that scrutinise it from different angles. Yet, there has been no thoughtful study dedicated to investigate the issue of Pickthall’s translation of the Qur’anic surahs’ names. Utilising the Contrastive Analysis approach as a theoretical framework, this study aims to fill this gap by assessing the accuracy of the equivalents provided by Pickthall to the 114 Qur’anic surahs’ names. The study consists of an introduction and five sections. It gives a succinct description of the Qur’anic surahs’ names, pinpoints the major features of Pickthall’s translation of the Qur’an, details his own approach in handling the Qur’anic surahs’ names, and analytically discusses the difficulties he encountered when rendering such vital terms of the Qur’an into English. The chief purpose of this study is fourfold: 1) to gauge the accuracy of Pickthall’s translation of the Qur’anic surah’s names, 2) to identify the difficulties encountered by him, 3) to pinpoint his own procedure (s), and 4) to advocate recommended translations and practical procedures. The study finds that Pickthall has been inconsistent and experiences a number of syntactic and semantic difficulties when rendering the Qur’anic surahs names into English. The study also finds that due to unjustifiable syntactic and semantic deviations, Pickthall conducts three types of translational pitfalls, namely: over-translation, under-translation, and erroneous translation. It is hoped that the arrived at findings are of fruitful benefit to the translators of the Qur’an and, by extension, to scholars of Qur’anic and Islamic studies.

СТРАТЕГИИ НАЗЫВАНИЯ МАГАЗИНОВ В КИТАЕ И РОССИИ

This article identifies and analyzes the priority ways of naming the trade organizations of Chelyabinsk and Heihe cities in the zone of cross-border economic cooperation between China and Russia. The typology of the names of shops and other enterprises providing goods and services shows ethnic and cultural features that manifest themselves in the modern language space of the two countries. A large variety of organization names was found in Chelyabinsk city: single words (including complex ones) both Russian and foreign, word groups consisting of Russian and foreign words, abbreviations as well as words with non-traditional spelling and unclear meaning. Six types of naming were found in Heihe city: words with positive connotations, words pointing to the major function of an organization, names containing a company’s location, words including the owner’s name, unsuitable names and samples of erroneous translation. The first 4 can be considered strategic ways of naming as far as they help promote companies that they name on the market of goods and services and play a considerable role in forming potential customers loyalty.

A High-Throughput Candida albicans Two-Hybrid System.

Candida albicans is a human fungal pathogen that does not follow the universal codon usage, as it translates the CUG codon into serine rather than leucine. This makes it difficult to study protein-protein interactions using the standard yeast two-hybrid (Y2H) system in the model organism Saccharomyces cerevisiae Due to the lack of adapted tools, only a small number of protein-protein interactions (PPIs) have been detected or studied using C.albicans-optimized tools despite the importance of PPIs to understand cell biology. However, with the sequencing of the whole genome of C.albicans, the availability of an ORFeome collection containing 5,099 open reading frames (ORFs) in Gateway-adapted donor vectors, and the creation of a Gateway-compatible C.albicans-specific two-hybrid (C2H) system, it became possible to study protein-protein interactions on a larger scale using C.albicans itself as the model organism. Erroneous translations are hereby eliminated compared to using the S.cerevisiae Y2H system. Here, we describe the technical adaptations and the first application of the C2H system for a high-throughput screen, thus making it possible to screen thousands of PPIs at once in C.albicans itself. This first, small-scale high-throughput screen, using Pho85 as a bait protein against 1,646 random prey proteins, yielded one interacting partner (Pcl5). The interaction found with the high-throughput setup was further confirmed with a low-throughput C2H experiment and with a coimmunoprecipitation (co-IP) experiment.IMPORTANCECandida albicans is a major fungal pathogen, and due to the rise of fungal infections and emerging resistance to the limited antifungals available, it is important to develop novel and more specific antifungals. Protein-protein interactions (PPIs) can be applied as very specific drug targets. However, because of the aberrant codon usage of C.albicans, the traditional yeast two-hybrid system in Saccharomyces cerevisiae is difficult to use, and only a limited number of PPIs have been described in C.albicans To overcome this, a C.albicans two-hybrid (C2H) system was developed in 2010. The current work describes, for the first time, the application of the C2H system in a high-throughput setup. We hereby show the usefulness of the C2H system to investigate and detect PPIs in C.albicans, making it possible to further elucidate protein networks in C.albicans, which has the potential to lead to the development of novel antifungals which specifically disrupt PPIs important for virulence.

A Revolutionary Narrative of European History: Bonneville's History of Modern Europe (1789–1792)

A Revolutionary Narrative of European History: Bonneville's <i>History of Modern Europe</i> (1789–1792)