Segregation In The United States Research Articles

The moving image as an instrument of oppression and resistance in Jim Crow Era Jacksonville, Florida, 1907–1917

ABSTRACT This paper will examine the contrasts in racial representations in films produced in Jacksonville at the cusp of the segregation era. These tensions will be examined by exploring how motion picture consumption factored into the politics of race in one of the largest cities in the New South during cinema’s silent era. This will be accomplished by exploring how the marginalized and disenfranchised attempted to assert agency in public and private spaces despite living in an environment of white supremacy and social inequities. By tracing the lived experiences of African American moviegoers in a Southern city at the onset of the Jim Crow Era, a broader comprehension of the early American film industry’s dismissiveness of – and at times outright insensitivity toward – acts of political terror against African Americans can be better understood.

The Role of Suburbanization in Metropolitan Segregation After 1940.

The three decades from 1940 through 1970 mark a turning point in the spatial scale of Black-White residential segregation in the United States compared with earlier years. We decompose metropolitan segregation into three components: segregation within the city, within the suburbs, and between the city and its suburbs. We then show that extreme levels of segregation were well established in most cities by 1940, and they changed only modestly by 1970. In this period, changes in segregation were greater at the metropolitan scale, driven by racially selective population growth in the suburbs. We also examine major sources of rising segregation, including region, metropolitan total, and Black population sizes, and indicators of redlining in the central cities based on risk maps prepared by the Home Owners Loan Corporation (HOLC) in the late 1930s. In addition to overall regional differences, segregation between the city and suburbs and within suburbia increased more in metropolitan areas with larger Black populations, but this relationship was found only in the North. In contrast to some recent theorizing, there is no association between preparation of an HOLC risk map or the share of city neighborhoods that were redlined and subsequent change in any component of segregation.

Racial Diversity and Segregation: Comparing Principal Cities, Inner-Ring Suburbs, Outlying Suburbs, and the Suburban Fringe

This article uses 2020 Census data to document recent trends in suburbanization, ethnoracial diversity, and residential segregation in the United States. It considers variation across inner-ring suburbs, outlying suburbs, and exurban areas at the metropolitan (metro) fringe. Suburbanization has recently continued, albeit more slowly than the 1990s and 2000s. Nearly two-thirds of all metro residents now live in the suburbs, fueled by change among ethnoracial minorities. For the first time, a majority of metro Blacks reside in suburbs. America’s suburbs, especially inner-ring suburbs, have experienced extraordinary increases in racial diversity. Declines continue in metro segregation, and segregation remains lower in the suburbs than principal cities, especially in outlying and fringe areas. For suburban Asians and Hispanics, however, exposure to Whites has declined since 1990. The suburban fringe remains the least diverse component of metro America. The fringe is less segregated than other metro areas, but has experienced patterns (such as growing Black-White segregation) contrary to national trends.

Age‐race‐ethnicity segregation in the United States: Where do minority older adults stand?

AbstractA recent study shows that among the three age groups of youth, adult and older adult, youth‐older adult has the highest age segregation while youth‐adult has the lowest. Similar to many previous age segregation studies, racial‐ethnic differences, an important population axis in segregation studies, were not considered. Prior studies are also limited to using two‐group measures, failing to compare multiple groups together. We explore the complexity in measuring intersectional segregation focusing on the two axes of age and race‐ethnicity and propose a conditional approach to measure age segregation by racial‐ethnic groups, and racial‐ethnic segregation by age groups. Using this approach, we empirically study the 2010 age‐race‐ethnic segregation at the county and state levels in the United States, using census tracts as the basic units. Both the two and multigroup dissimilarity indices were used. Results show that the racial‐ethnic axis had been a stronger force in segregation than the age axis. Results also show disparities of racial‐ethnic segregation across age groups with the highest levels present among older adults and in urban counties. For all three age groups, segregation levels involving Natives and Asians tend to be higher than those without them. In contrast, age segregation was the highest between youths and older adults, and the levels varied across racial‐ethnic groups with Natives at the highest levels. Although age segregation was significantly different between urban and rural counties, higher segregation in urban areas were mostly involving Whites as opposed to higher segregation in rural counties involving minority racial groups. Studying age segregation should not be colour blinded, as nonwhite older adults in rural counties were more likely to experience higher levels of age segregation than other groups.

Postscript: Time Doesn't Heal All Wounds

Postscript: Time Doesn't Heal All Wounds

Justice or Just Us? Social Death, Gang Injunctions, and the Creation of a Modern American Apartheid State

This article will discuss the practice of civil gang injunctions in Southern California, its history, and civil court procedures. It explores the gang abatement method's unconstitutionality through the lens of the First and Fourteenth Amendments of the United States Constitution, critiquing the unequal treatment of people of color in the justice system. Through philosophical theories of language and authoritarian control, the article will go on to discuss how a supposedly egalitarian nation like the United States could support and continue the utilization of such a harmful tactic. Finally, the article will contextualize gang injunctions with the South African practice of apartheid and argue that it fits the classification of an apartheid policy under the definitions of the international court and other international treaties.

Escaping the Catastrophic Logic of Separation.

In the philosophical system of American Apartheid, "race" is a fact, racial hierarchy a key corollary, and "separation of races" in status, rights, and geography a logical inference. The concept of racial hierarchy proved useful in the early colonial period in Virginia and elsewhere, first begun in the 1600s to keep indentured servants and enslaved people from joining together and overthrowing the plantation oligarchy. The discourse of separation has continued to be a key tactic for gaining and maintaining power, with profound harmful consequences for the nation. This article will explore three themes that are important for these times: (1) the ongoing "redlining system" that continues to ensnare us in a geography of apartheid; (2) the paradox of apartheid that "separation" binds the parts more firmly together; and (3) the "new racism" that attacks progress with the use of such farfetched ideas as the "replacement theory." From these explorations, I propose ways in which TRUTH and RECONCILIATION can be mobilized to put us on a new path.

Water Infrastructure as Intrusion: Race, Exclusion, and Nostalgic Futures in North Carolina

In the late 1990s, the predominantly white community of Morningside, North Carolina, prevented annexation into the larger majority-minority city of Greensboro, citing their desire to “preserve their way of life.” This case demonstrates how a white, affluent town incorporated, resisting annexation, and with it, centralized water service connections. More than twenty years later, many residents in Morningside continue to reject centralized water and sewerage, fearing it will facilitate in-migration and erode the town’s “community character.” These decades-long dynamics maintain the high degree of racial residential segregation between Morningside and neighboring Greensboro. Morningside stands in stark contrast to many Black communities in North Carolina, which are underbounded and excluded from municipal water and sanitation. This case contributes to environmental injustice and water security scholarship in three ways. First, we enrich the meaning ascribed to water infrastructure and the purposes that it serves—as a connection (an improvement) and as an intrusion. Second, by situating these current contests within a larger historical context, we highlight the social constructedness of water. In this dialectical relationship, water is both the outward mechanism to marginalize, hiding the actors behind the process, and the object of corruption for people who are marginalized. Third, we demonstrate how water infrastructure advances exclusionary futures that rely on erasure and discursive coding. Overall, we caution how the depoliticization of centralized water infrastructure can enable the persistence of racial residential segregation in the United States.

A theory for the “Anglo-Saxon mind”: Ellen Churchill Semple's reinterpretation of Friedrich Ratzel'sAnthropogeographie

Abstract. The American geographer Ellen Churchill Semple (1863–1932), famous for her work on environmental influence, is often framed as a mere disciple of the German geographer Friedrich Ratzel (1844–1904). Drawing on a reading of Semple's published and unpublished works as well as correspondence and diaries, this paper sheds new light on the two anthropogeographers' intellectual relationship, which was in fact one with benefits to both sides. Semple found in Ratzel's geography a detached and scientific language with which to reinterpret American history. He drew on her as an informant on issues of racial segregation in the United States. Although Semple remained loyal to his broader intellectual project after his death, she had begun, soon after they met, to develop her own brand of anthropogeography, freed from the ambivalences of his work. Her sharpened reformulation, which he had endorsed, would ultimately make anthropogeography an easier target for its critics.

The Color of Justice: Segregation in the US and South Africa

The Color of Justice: Segregation in the US and South Africa

Differential changes in air pollution exposure by racial residential segregation in the United States: a longitudinal multi-cohort study

BACKGROUND AND AIM While levels of ambient air pollution have declined over time in the United States, studies have found persistent exposure disparities by race and ethnicity. Racial residential segregation may contribute to differential reductions in air pollution and perpetuate related health inequities. METHODS We analyzed harmonized data from three longitudinal cohort studies, spanning the years 1990-2017: Cardiovascular Health Study (CHS), Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis (MESA), and Reasons for Geographic and Racial Differences in Stroke (REGARDS) (N=466,513 person-years). Annual average NO₂ and PM₂.₅ exposures for residential addresses were estimated from national spatio-temporal models. Neighborhood segregation indices of multi-race divergence, Black-White dissimilarity, and single-race isolation were created from Census tract-level data, with linear interpolation for intercensal years. We evaluated percent changes in NO₂ and PM₂.₅ over time by segregation z-score and race using log-linear repeated measures models adjusted for age, sex, individual and neighborhood socioeconomic status, urbanicity, and cohort. RESULTS From 1990 to 2017, mean (SD) NO₂ exposure decreased by 62.2% for Black participants [from 23.3 (9.6) to 8.8 (4.8) ppb] and 61.8% for White participants [17.0 (8.0) to 6.5 (4.1) ppb]; since 1999, PM₂.₅ respectively declined by 54.5% [16.5 (2.5) to 7.5 (1.0) μg/m3] and 54.4% [14.9 (2.8) to 6.8 (1.2) µg/m3]. Among Black participants, exposure levels were consistently higher in more segregated neighborhoods, where the rate of decline lagged: each standard deviation increase in divergence was associated with 0.19% (95% CI: 0.14-0.24) and 0.14% (0.12-0.16) slower average annual declines in NO₂ and PM₂.₅, respectively, with similar trends for dissimilarity and isolation. CONCLUSIONS Despite improvements in air quality, Black individuals continue to experience higher levels of air pollution than White individuals, particularly in more segregated neighborhoods. These trends may contribute to enduring racial inequities in health outcomes, warranting further research and action to improve environmental injustice. KEYWORDS Air pollution, segregation

Threatening Property: Race, Class, and Campaigns to Legislate Jim Crow Neighborhoods

Threatening Property: Race, Class, and Campaigns to Legislate Jim Crow Neighborhoods

Black Fundamentalists: Conservative Christianity and Racial Identity in the Segregation Era. By Daniel R. BareKincraft: The Making of Black Evangelical Sociality. By Todne Thomas

Black Fundamentalists: Conservative Christianity and Racial Identity in the Segregation Era. By Daniel R. BareKincraft: The Making of Black Evangelical Sociality. By Todne Thomas

Black Fundamentalists: Conservative Christianity and Racial Identity in the Segregation Era by Daniel R. Bare

Black Fundamentalists: Conservative Christianity and Racial Identity in the Segregation Era by Daniel R. Bare

‘A Democracy That Will Know Not the Differences of Race’: American ‘Globetrotting’ in South Africa from the 1920s through the 1980s in Perspective

ABSTRACT When in 1931 the United States sent an all-white track and field team to compete against an all-white South African roster, it inaugurated a series of interchanges that over the next six decades illuminated intersections between politics, race, and sport in both nations. Between the 1930s and the 1980s, these periodic sporting encounters served as lightning rods that rallied civil rights activists and anti-apartheid protestors, linking battles over sport and race in both nations. By the 1960s, as legal segregation in the US eroded while the system in South Africa hardened, titans of American sporting desegregation who championed athletes’ rights such as Jack Robinson linked their endeavours to anti-apartheid campaigns. At the end of the 1980s, two multi-racial groups of American athletes broke international anti-apartheid bans and created a new debate over the concept of athletes’ rights. As apartheid crumbled in the early 1990s, an American legal scholar sought to codify this new perspective into a federal ‘athletes’ bill of rights’, providing a paradoxical postscript for this special issue on ‘Excavating the Ancestry of “Globetrotting”: New Perspectives on the Intersection of Racial Politics, Civil Rights Struggles and Anti-Apartheid Crusades in US Track and Field from the 1920s through the 1980s’.

Changing Faces of the American Apartheid

Bu makale Amerika Birleşik Devletlerindeki günümüzde hala, başta siyahlar olmak üzere ırkî azınlık gruplarına, sistematik bir şekilde uygulanan ırk ayrımcılığının kapsamını belirlemektedir. Bunu yaparken de, karşılaştırmalı tarihi sosyolojik metodu uygulayarak, ülkedeki ırk ayrımının tarihi kökenlerini takip etmektedir. Söz konusu sosyolojik yaklaşım zaman içerisinde aynı ırk siyasetinin - ırkî azınlıkların beyaz çoğunluktan ayrıştırılması - farklı tatbiklerini karşılaştırma olanağı tanımaktadır. Bu makaledeki ana amaçlardan biri, okuyucuya ABD’deki ırkî ayrımcılığın zaman içerisinde değişen doğasını göstermektir. Dolayısıyla, bu makale iki ana akademik soru üzerine inşa edilmiştir: 1) ABD’deki ırk ayrımının ülkenin kuruluşundan bu yana tarihi safhaları nelerdir? ve 2) ABD’deki ırk ayrımcılığının (eğer varsa) çağdaş uygulamaları nelerdir?

Interactive analysis of big geospatial data with high‐performance computing: A case study of partisan segregation in the United States

AbstractResearchers are increasingly working with large geospatial datasets that contain hundreds of millions of records. At this scale, desktop GIS systems typically fall short and so new approaches and methods are needed. The objective of this work is to develop new approaches to interactively analyze large datasets and then to demonstrate the usefulness of those approaches using a case study looking at voter, or partisan segregation. Historically, the measurement of partisan segregation has been limited to comparing large geographic areas such as counties or states because researchers only had access to aggregated data. In this case study, however, we measure partisan segregation down to the individual for 180 million U.S. voters using advanced geospatial data science and high‐performance computing. This article discusses interactive method development for big geospatial data analysis including techniques used, solutions developed, and processing time statistics.

Black Fundamentalists: Conservative Christianity and Racial Identity in the Segregation Era by Daniel R. Bare

Reviewed by: Black Fundamentalists: Conservative Christianity and Racial Identity in the Segregation Era Daniel R. Bare Curtis J. Evans Daniel R. Bare, Black Fundamentalists: Conservative Christianity and Racial Identity in the Segregation Era (New York: New York University Press, 2021) Probably no religious groups in American history, with the exception of Puritans, have received as much attention and scholarship over the last decade or two as white evangelical and fundamentalist Protestants. Beginning with George Marsden’s groundbreaking Fundamentalism and American Culture, the scholarship has continued to flow. Two books serve as bookends of one era of this scholarship: Joel Carpenter’s Revive Us Again: The Reawakening of American Fundamentalism (1997) and Matthew Sutton’s A History of Modern Evangelicalism (2017). Before Mary Beth Swetnam Mathews’s Doctrine and Race: African American Evangelicals and Fundamentalism (2017) came out with its fuller treatment of black fundamentalism, Sutton’s book was the only synthetic account to take seriously the experience of African American fundamentalists. One of the most striking insights from Sutton’s book is how seemingly little shared theological positions between white and black fundamentalists mattered for white fundamentalists insofar as their political and civic responsibilities toward African Americans. White fundamentalists supported segregation, espoused and propounded racist and buffoonish caricatures of black religiosity, and almost universally rejected any attempt to reform American society according to a Social Gospel model that found a notable [End Page 128] and important following among black (liberal and conservative) and white (liberal) Protestants. Daniel R. Bare’s Black Fundamentalists stands squarely in the midst of this historiographical debate and argues that black Americans have been excluded from the scholarship on Protestant fundamentalism. He seeks to correct that lacuna by examining the ways in which some African Americans accepted self-identification as fundamentalists and adhered to a number of “fundamentalist” doctrines. Bare argues for the salience of theological doctrine as a marker of identity and as a “meaningful analytical category.” The latter argument is a driving force in his narrative, though its plausibility is less compelling as it lays out the details of what the fundamentalist label meant apart from opposition to certain modernist positions. Unfortunately, we learn very little about the details of the lives of these black fundamentalist leaders. They appear like spectral figures; we know almost nothing of their educational background and the kinds of church contexts in which they preached. Bare makes no significant mention of the Great Migration as a force in catalyzing these divisions within black Protestantism. Even when social context comes into play, Bare tends to misconstrue the power dynamics of racial oppression by insisting that “the different social and cultural circumstances facing black and white communities often led to substantially different social actions and applications, even among those who would commonly agree on the most important fundamentalist doctrines” (15). To speak of black confrontations with racism as merely “different social actions and applications” of theological doctrines indicates at best a serious misunderstanding of the harshness and circumscriptions of social existence for blacks, as though the two groups were equal in merely “applying” doctrines to the circumstances of their lives. Black Fundamentalists has five chapters and a helpful introduction that points out the ways in which race and African American fundamentalism have not been adequately addressed in the existing scholarship. Bare makes a compelling case for the inclusion of African Americans in narratives of fundamentalism, but his specific doctrinal approach to black Protestants leaves a lot of missing parts. The first chapter uses African American weekly newspapers as a source for discussions about the prevalence of fundamentalism in black communities. Given the complicated, critical, and sometimes adversarial perspective that black newspapers took on black religious life, it seems doubtful that their claims about fundamentalism as a widespread phenomenon among black Protestants should be taken as the last word. Calling someone a fundamentalist was often a way to denigrate their entire religious perspective, and black newspapers and secular critics often resorted to this tactic (a point that Bare notes in respect to claims about what was best for black civic and political life). [End Page 129] Bare’s second chapter looks at the five fundamental doctrines across black Protestantism and compares black...

Racialized Reshuffling: Urban Change and the Persistence of Segregation in the Twenty-First Century

The literature on the persistence of racial residential segregation in the United States has made significant progress by moving beyond traditional explanations—socioeconomic differences, preferences, and discrimination—to focus on the complex ways in which these factors interact with the multistage process of residential sorting. Dramatic changes in metropolitan landscapes over the past two decades, however, demand an expanded theoretical framework that can account for stability and change. In this article, we review research on contemporary urban changes that offers insights for explaining segregation's persistence amid widespread change. We identify three broad categories of mechanisms that exacerbate inequities by race and class in residential sorting processes: resource inequality, hierarchy endurance, and consolidated power. We describe developments in measuring segregation and new data and methods for studying urban change that enable researchers to consider the contemporary mechanisms, forms, and scales of segregation in the twenty-first century.

Until Justice Be Done: America's First Civil Rights Movement, from the Revolution to Reconstruction

Until Justice Be Done: America's First Civil Rights Movement, from the Revolution to Reconstruction