Equivalent Water Content Research Articles

Mechanisms and advancements in microwave-enhanced CO2 mineralization of lightweight porous concrete

Lightweight porous concrete (LPC) typically exhibits low early strength, which can be addressed by enhancing early strength through carbon dioxide (CO2) mineralization curing while achieving permanent CO2 sequestration. The efficacy of this process relies on maintaining optimal moisture levels. This study investigates the influence of moisture content on the performance of solid waste-based lightweight porous concrete blocks (RSFAC) subjected to microwave heating pretreatment. Moisture levels were adjusted to 10%, 20%, 30%, and 40% (initial water-to-cement ratio of 45.4%) before undergoing mineralization curing within an environment set at a temperature of 20 °C, relative humidity 75%, and a CO2 concentration of 40% for a duration of 0.5 h. The impact of moisture content on RSFAC's compressive strength, carbon sequestration rate, mineralization products, and microstructure was evaluated. Results indicate that compared to conventional oven pretreatment methods requiring nearly 10 h, microwave pretreatment technology achieves equivalent water content within just 50 min, significantly reducing the time needed for mineralization pretreatment. RSFAC, when pretreated with microwave heating, outperforms untreated samples (Ref-0 and Ref-1) in terms of compressive strength and carbon sequestration efficiency. Optimal performance was observed at a moisture content level of 30%, with the highest recorded compressive strength achieved at 1, 3, and 7 d respectively. At the curing age of 7 d, the compressive strength reached up to 2.32 MPa while the carbon sequestration rate reached approximately 11.61%. Furthermore, aragonite and calcite (tetrahedral and hexahedral), without poorly crystalline spherulites, were identified as the main crystalline CaCO3 generated by RSFAC under this specific moisture content condition; pores larger than 50 nm served as primary reaction sites for RSFAC mineralization curing, whereas there was a significant increase in pore proportion with sizes less than 20 nm after filling with mineralization products.

Operational and experimental snow observation systems in the upper Rofental: data from 2017 to 2023

Abstract. This publication presents a comprehensive hydrometeorological data set for three research sites in the upper Rofental (1891–3772 m a.s.l., Ötztal Alps, Austria) and is a companion publication to a data collection published in 2018. The time series presented here comprise data from 2017 to 2023 and originate from three meteorological and snow hydrological stations at 2737, 2805, and 2919 m a.s.l. The fully equipped automatic weather stations include a specific set of sensors to continuously record snow cover properties. These are automatic measurements of snow depth, snow water equivalent, volumetric solid and liquid water contents, snow density, layered snow temperature profiles, and snow surface temperature. One station is extended by a particular arrangement of two snow depth and water equivalent recording devices to observe and quantify wind-driven snow transport. These devices are installed at nearby wind-exposed and sheltered locations and are complemented by an acoustic-based snow drift sensor. We present data for temperature, precipitation, humidity, wind speed, and radiation fluxes and explore the continuous snow measurements by combined analyses of meteorological and snow data to show typical seasonal snow cover characteristics. The potential of the snow drift observations is demonstrated with examples of measured wind speeds, snow drift rates, and redistributed snow amounts during several blowing snow events. The data complement the scientific monitoring infrastructure in the research catchment and represent a unique time series of high-altitude mountain weather and snow observations. They enable comprehensive insights into the dynamics of high-altitude meteorological and snow processes and are collected to support the scientific community, local stakeholders, and the interested public, as well as operational warning and forecasting services. The data are publicly available from the GFZ Data Services repository: https://doi.org/10.5880/fidgeo.2023.037 (Department of Geography, University of Innsbruck, 2024).

Large-Scale Triaxial Testing of Geogrid-Stabilized Field-Sourced Fouled Ballast Under Simulated Progressive Rainfall Wetting and Cyclic Loading Conditions

Railroad track ballast composed of uniformly graded crushed aggregate is susceptible to fouling from substances like ballast fines degraded during track service, coal dust, clay, and sand. Fouling reduces the drainage capacity of ballast, often leading to water accumulation and subsequent performance degradation. Fouled ballast with high moisture content experiences excessive settlement and could benefit from stabilization for safe operations. While previous studies have highlighted the efficacy of geogrids in stabilizing fouled ballast and minimizing the overall track settlement, the effect of geogrid on the performance of fouled ballast under progressive rainfall wetting and continuous cyclic loading conditions remains unexplored. This study examines the performance of geogrid-stabilized field-sourced fouled ballast through large-scale triaxial tests. The findings reveal that the inclusion of a single-layer geogrid can effectively reduce settlement and deformation rates under equivalent water content conditions. A layer of geogrid could prevent sample failure under saturated conditions, retaining approximately 1,000 kPa post-cyclic shear strength. Furthermore, the results indicate that geogrid stabilization enhances the resilience of fouled ballast and maintains the track geometry under progressive rainfall conditions. These findings offer crucial insights for geogrid applications in railroad maintenance.

Investigating the Sorption Isotherms and Hysteresis of a Round Perforated Brick Using Newly Developed Models

This article deals with the hygrothermal behavior of round perforated brick including hysteresis effects. It aims at examining the effect of temperature on sorption isotherms and hysteresis of this product, reducing the energy consumption of the buildings, reinforcing the constructional economy and the inhabitant’s comfort as well as offering a hygrothermal description of this product that has never been previously investigated. To achieve this, we have carried out an experimental study to determine the sorption isotherms and the hysteresis in five different temperatures (10, 23, 30, 40, and 50 °C). Twelve equations have been tested against the experimental isotherms in order to find the optimal one. After that, three models were tested in order to develop a personal model; the latter explains the real effect of the hysteresis phenomenon on hygrothermal behavior of the studied product. To validate the mathematical model, two methods were applied to calculate the isosteric heat. The obtained results revealed a significant influence of the increase in temperature on the hygrothermal behavior in which a decrease in the equivalent water content was found. Moreover, the developed experimental model is based on Oswin’s model describing the dependence of temperature on the sorption characteristics of round perforated bricks. Furthermore, the Huang model was found to be the best compared with the other models with a regression factor (R2) of 0.990. The validation of the results using the isosteric heat parameter has confirmed that the suggested models demonstrated a perfect presentation of the sorption isotherms and the hysteresis phenomenon of the round perforated brick.

Study on effect of equivalent initial water content on dredged sludge treated by VP-FSCM

This paper explores the effect of equivalent initial water content (wei) on the dredged sludge treated by the vacuum preloading-flocculation-solidification combined method (VP-FSCM). The effects of different wei on the deposition, dehydration, strength characteristics, and after-curing water content (wac) of the sludge were studied by the indoor VP-FSCM experiment. The treatment efficiencies of VP-FSCM and curing agent solidified sludge method were compared. The results showed that the deposition and dehydration of the sample were evident in the early and middle stages of VP-FSCM treatment. As wei increased, the deposition, dehydration, and undrained shear strength of the sample gradually increased, and wac decreased first and then increased. After VP-FSCM treatment, the sample exhibited a better curing result than those treated with blast furnace slag (GGBS) and ordinary Portland cement (OPC) solidified sludge method (GCSM). In addition, the curing effect was significantly enhanced as wei increased from 150% to 250%. This study is expected to provide references for the application of the physical consolidation-chemical solidification combined disposal technology, thus facilitating the utilization of the sludge resources.

Accurate evaluation of the Birch effect requires continuous CO2 measurements and relevant controls

The influence of dry-wet cycles (DWC) on soil organic carbon (SOC) decomposition is still debated given the somehow controversial results observed in the literature. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of DWC on SOC mineralization relative to various moisture controls in 7 treatments from two long-term French field experiments presenting contrasted SOC concentrations. A laboratory incubation was conducted for 97 days to quantify CO2 emissions upon four soil moisture scenarios: continuously wet scenario at pF 1.5 (WET), continuously moderate wet scenario at pF 2.5 (MWET), continuously dry scenario at pF 4.2 (DRY) and dry-wet cycles (DWC) between pF 1.5 and 4.2. Each cycle contained two phases, 10 days of drying phase, followed by 7 days of moist phase after rewetting. The drying phase consisted of adding silica gel to the incubation jars to absorb water in the soil and then gradually drying the soil. We also calculated the SOC mineralization that would correspond to the average water content in DWC (mean_DWC). Our results showed that across all treatments the daily carbon mineralization rate increased with soil moisture (WET > MWET > DRY). In DWC scenario, mineralization rates fluctuated with the changes in soil moisture. As soils dried, daily mineralization rates decreased and the subsequent soil rewetting, to pF 1.5, caused a rapid mineralization flush or “Birch effect”. However, these flushes did not compensate for the low mineralization rates in the drying phase as the cumulative mineralization was not higher in the DWC scenario compared to the mean_DWC which was the scenario with equivalent water content as the DWC. We also observed that not accounting the CO2 emissions in the drying phase, could lead to an overestimation of the effect of DWC. We recommend to measure continuously the soil respiration during dry-wet experiments and to compare the CO2 emitted in DWC with a control that has a water content equivalent to the average water content in DWC. In addition, we questioned the importance of the effect of DWC on overall soil respiration.

THM-coupled numerical analysis of temperature and groundwater level in-situ measurements in artificial ground freezing

Belarusian Potash salt deposits are bedded under aquifers and unstable soil stratums. Therefore, to develop the deposits a vertical mine shaft sinking is performed using the artificial ground freezing technology. Nowadays, real time observations of ground temperature and groundwater level is applied to control the ground freezing process. Numerical simulation can be used for a comprehensive analysis of measurements results. In this paper a thermo-hydro-mechanical model of freezing of water saturated soil is proposed. The governing equations of the model are based on balance laws for mass, energy and momentum for a fully saturated porous media. Clausius-Clayperon equation and poroelastic constitutive relations are adopted for description of a coupled change in water and ice pore pressure, porosity and a stress-strain state of freezing soil. The proposed model enables us to describe evolution of equivalent water content measured in Mizoguchi’s test and predict frost heave strain in one-sided freezing test. Numerical simulation of ground freezing in the Petrikov mining complex located in Belarus has shown that the model is able to describe field measurements of pore pressure inside a forming frozen wall. Furthermore, the mismatch between hydro- and thermo-monitoring data obtained during the artificial freezing is analyzed.

Arabidopsis aldehyde oxidase 3, known to oxidize abscisic aldehyde to abscisic acid, protects leaves from aldehyde toxicity.

The Arabidopsis thaliana aldehyde oxidase 3 (AAO3) catalyzes the oxidation of abscisic aldehyde (ABal) to abscisic acid (ABA). Besides ABal, plants generate other aldehydes that can be toxic above a certain threshold. AAO3 knockout mutants (aao3) exhibited earlier senescence but equivalent relative water content compared with wild-type (WT) during normal growth or upon application of UV-C irradiation. Aldehyde profiling in leaves of 24-day-old plants revealed higher accumulation of acrolein, crotonaldehyde, 3Z-hexenal, hexanal and acetaldehyde in aao3 mutants compared with WT leaves. Similarly, higher levels of acrolein, benzaldehyde, crotonaldehyde, propionaldehyde, trans-2-hexenal and acetaldehyde were accumulated in aao3 mutants upon UV-C irradiation. Aldehydes application to plants hastened profuse senescence symptoms and higher accumulation of aldehydes, such as acrolein, benzaldehyde and 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal, in aao3 mutant leaves as compared with WT. The senescence symptoms included greater decrease in chlorophyll content and increase in transcript expression of the early senescence marker genes, Senescence-Related-Gene1, Stay-Green-Protein2 as well as NAC-LIKE, ACTIVATED-BY AP3/P1. Notably, although aao3 had lower ABA content than WT, members of the ABA-responding genes SnRKs were expressed at similar levels in aao3 and WT. Moreover, the other ABA-deficient mutants [aba2 and 9-cis-poxycarotenoid dioxygenase3-2 (nced3-2), that has functional AAO3] exhibited similar aldehydes accumulation and chlorophyll content like WT under normal growth conditions or UV-C irradiation. These results indicate that the absence of AAO3 oxidation activity and not the lower ABA and its associated function is responsible for the earlier senescence symptoms in aao3 mutant.

Hydration of Nebular Minerals through the Implantation–Diffusion Process

Abstract Recent studies have detected structurally bound water in the refractory silicate minerals present in ordinary and enstatite chondrite meteorites. The mechanism for the incorporation of the hydrogen is not well defined. In this paper we quantitatively examine a two-fold process involving the implantation and diffusion of nebular hydrogen ions that is responsible for the hydration of the chondritic minerals. Our simulations show that depending on critical parameters, including the flux of the protons in nebular plasma, retention coefficient, temperature of the silicate minerals, and desorption rate of implanted hydrogen, the implantation of low-energy hydrogen ions can result in equivalent water contents of ∼0.1 wt% in chondritic silicates within 10 years. Thus, this novel mechanism operating in the nebula at 10−3 bar pressure and <650 K temperatures can efficiently hydrate the free-floating chondritic minerals prior to the rapid formation of planetesimals inside the snow line, and agree well with the wet accretion scenario for the inner solar system objects.

Reasonable application range of flocculation–solidification combined method in treatment of hydraulically dredged mud slurry

An improved method, i.e., flocculation–solidification combined method (FSCM), has been developed for building a working platform more efficiently at the surface of newly reclaimed ground filled with hydraulically dredged mud slurry at extra high water content (EHW-MS). Previous experimental results have demonstrated the significant superiority of FSCM over conventional pure cement solidification method (PCSM) under some application conditions. This study focuses on further clarifying the reasonable boundary for the application conditions, i.e., identifying the reasonable application range, of FSCM in EHW-MS treatment. A number of laboratory experiments are performed to characterize the deposition and strength gain behavior of FSCM or PCSM treated EHW-MS samples with various values of the equivalent initial water content (w ei) and Atterberg limits. The deposition and strength characteristics resulting from FSCM and PCSM are then compared comprehensively to illustrate the influence of w ei and Atterberg limits on the superiority of FSCM over PCSM. Results indicate well that FSCM shows more significant superiority over PCSM with the increase of either w ei or Atterberg limits, and plastic limit > 14 (or liquid limit > 23) and w ei > 232% can be considered as the reasonable application range of FSCM in EHW-MS treatment, within which the solidification efficiency of FSCM is at least 1.20 times higher than that of PCSM.

Transpiration Rate of White Clover (Trifolium repens L.) Cultivars in Drying Soil.

Determining the performance of white clover cultivars under drought conditions is critical in dry climates. However, comparing the differences in cultivar performance requires equivalent soil water content for all plants, to reduce the water deficit threshold eliciting stomatal closure. In this study, the objective was to compare the rate of stomatal closure in eighty white clover cultivars in response to soil drying. Two glasshouse experiments were conducted, and the daily transpiration rate was measured by weighing each pot. The transpiration rate of the drought-stressed plants were normalized against the control plants to minimize effects from transpiration fluctuations and was recorded as the normalized transpiration rate (NTR). The daily soil water content was expressed as the fraction of transpirable soil water (FTSW). The FTSW threshold (FTSWc) was estimated after which the NTR decreases linearly. The FTSWc marks the critical point where the stomata start to close, and transpiration decreases linearly. The significant difference (p < 0.05) between the 10 cultivars with the highest and lowest FTSWc demonstrates the cultivars would perform better in short- or long-term droughts.

Influence of Salt Concentration on Hydrated Polymer Relative Permittivity and State of Water Properties

Little is known about how aqueous electrolyte exposure affects hydrated polymer relative permittivity and state of water properties. Increasing NaCl solution concentration (0.01, 0.1, and 1.0 mol/L) caused a cross-linked glycidyl and glycerol methacrylate-based copolymer to osmotically deswell and caused ion sorption to increase opposite to electrostatic theory and Maxwell Garnett equation predictions. The presence, due to salt solution equilibration, of ions in the polymer drove an increase in static permittivity compared to that of pure water-equilibrated equivalent water content samples. The influence of salt concentration on hydrated polymer dielectric permittivity properties was fundamentally different from its influence on aqueous electrolyte solutions where dielectric permittivity decreases as salt concentration increases. Generally, the amount of bulk-like water in the polymers decreased as salt concentration increased, but a maximum was observed in low water content (<7% by mass) polymers, suggesting that ions and water may compete for interactions with the polymer.

Temperature effects on sorption behaviour of compressed and cement-stabilised earth blocks

This paper seeks, as a part of Algerian policy, to encourage the reconstruction of the ground in order to achieve economic reconstruction and the safety of inhabitants and the environment. The study focuses on the hygrothermal behaviour of compressed and stabilised earth blocks that can be used in different climate zones, like the south of Algeria, where the temperature is up to 50°C in summer, and the coastal towns, where humidity exceeds 80%. Accordingly, an experimental study has been conducted to determine the influence of temperature on the sorption isotherms for compressed and stabilised earth blocks stabilised with 6% of cement. The sorption isotherms were measured at temperatures of 10, 23, 30, 40 and 50°C. Twelve equations have been fit to the experimental isotherms to find the one that gives the best agreement. An experimental model was then developed based on the Oswin model describing the dependence of temperature on the sorption characteristics of compressed and stabilised earth blocks. The results show a significant influence of the increase in temperature on the hygrothermal behaviour, in particular a reduction of 11% in the equivalent water content between 10°C and 50°C.

Study on the traceability of equivalent water content of nitrogen tetroxide measured by nuclear magnetic method

This paper studies the traceability of the certified value of the reference material with the equivalent water content of nitrogen tetroxide(NTO) and green nitrogen tetroxide(MON), which lays the foundation for the certified value of the reference material. The purity of bibenzyl was measured by differential scanning calorimetry(DSC), the water content of deuterium acetonitrile(DAN) was measured by Karl Fischer method, the proton content and water content of deuterium acetonitrile(DAN) were measured by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy(NMR), and the equivalent water content of deuterium acetonitrile(DAN) - nitrous oxide system was measured. All of these three methods can be directly traced to SI units, which are internationally recognized potential reference measurement methods. Therefore, the fixed value of equivalent water content reference material has metrological traceability.

Functional group configuration influences salt transport in desalination membrane materials

Five methacrylate-based co-polymers, which have different ratios of 2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate (HEMA) and glycerol methacrylate (GMAOH) co-monomers, were prepared to investigate the influence of functional group configuration on salt transport properties. The HEMA and GMAOH co-monomers were selected because of the differences in position and number of hydroxyl groups in the two molecules. Co-polymer composition was varied systematically from a vicinal diol-rich (GMAOH-rich) configuration to a distributed hydroxyl group (HEMA-rich) configuration. To decouple the impact of functional group configuration and of changing water content on transport properties, all of the materials were prepared to have statistically equivalent water content. Salt sorption was lower and salt diffusion was slower in the HEMA-rich configuration compared to the GMAOH-rich configuration. Microwave dielectric relaxation spectroscopy revealed lower relative permittivity (i.e., dielectric constant) for the HEMA-rich co-polymers, which is consistent with suppressed salt sorption in those materials compared to the GMAOH-rich co-polymers. This observation was complemented by state of water analysis that suggested freezable (i.e., bulk-like) water content decreased as HEMA content increased. Both results suggest that stronger interactions between water molecules and the polymer are favored when hydrophilic functional groups are distributed more evenly throughout the material. These results suggest that functional group position in hydrated polymers influences salt transport properties, and engineering polymers that have a distributed functional group configuration may suppress salt transport properties, which could result in favorable materials for desalination membranes.

Retrieval of Snow Water Equivalent, Liquid Water Content, and Snow Height of Dry and Wet Snow by Combining GPS Signal Attenuation and Time Delay

AbstractFor numerous hydrological applications, information on snow water equivalent (SWE) and snow liquid water content (LWC) are fundamental. In situ data are much needed for the validation of model and remote sensing products; however, they are often scarce, invasive, expensive, or labor‐intense. We developed a novel nondestructive approach based on Global Positioning System (GPS) signals to derive SWE, snow height (HS), and LWC simultaneously using one sensor setup only. We installed two low‐cost GPS sensors at the high‐alpine site Weissfluhjoch (Switzerland) and processed data for three entire winter seasons between October 2015 and July 2018. One antenna was mounted on a pole, being permanently snow‐free; the other one was placed on the ground and hence seasonally covered by snow. While SWE can be derived by exploiting GPS carrier phases for dry‐snow conditions, the GPS signals are increasingly delayed and attenuated under wet snow. Therefore, we combined carrier phase and signal strength information, dielectric models, and simple snow densification approaches to jointly derive SWE, HS, and LWC. The agreement with the validation measurements was very good, even for large values of SWE (&gt;1,000 mm) and HS (&gt; 3 m). Regarding SWE, the agreement (root‐mean‐square error (RMSE); coefficient of determination (R2)) for dry snow (41 mm; 0.99) was very high and slightly better than for wet snow (73 mm; 0.93). Regarding HS, the agreement was even better and almost equally good for dry (0.13 m; 0.98) and wet snow (0.14 m; 0.95). The approach presented is suited to establish sensor networks that may improve the spatial and temporal resolution of snow data in remote areas.

Roots of the Resurrection Plant Tripogon loliiformis Survive Desiccation Without the Activation of Autophagy Pathways by Maintaining Energy Reserves.

Being sessile, plants must regulate energy balance, potentially via source-sink relations, to compromise growth with survival in stressful conditions. Crops are sensitive, possibly because they allocate their energy resources toward growth and yield rather than stress tolerance. In contrast, resurrection plants tightly regulate sugar metabolism and use a series of physiological adaptations to suppress cell death in their vegetative tissue to regain full metabolic capacity from a desiccated state within 72 h of watering. Previously, we showed that shoots of the resurrection plant Tripogon loliiformis, initiate autophagy upon dehydration as one strategy to reinstate homeostasis and suppress cell death. Here, we describe the relationship between energy status, sugar metabolism, trehalose-mediated activation of autophagy pathways and investigate whether shoots and roots utilize similar desiccation tolerance strategies. We show that despite containing high levels of trehalose, dehydrated Tripogon roots do not display elevated activation of autophagy pathways. Using targeted and non-targeted metabolomics, transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and transcriptomics we show that T. loliiformis engages a strategy similar to the long-term drought responses of sensitive plants and continues to use the roots as a sink even during sustained stress. Dehydrating T. loliiformis roots contained more sucrose and trehalose-6-phosphate compared to shoots at an equivalent water content. The increased resources in the roots provides sufficient energy to cope with stress and thus autophagy is not required. These results were confirmed by the absence of autophagosomes in roots by TEM. Upregulation of sweet genes in both shoots and roots show transcriptional regulation of sucrose translocation from leaves to roots and within roots during dehydration. Differences in the cell’s metabolic status caused starkly different cell death responses between shoots and roots. These findings show how shoots and roots utilize different stress response strategies and may provide candidate targets that can be used as tools for the improvement of stress tolerance in crops.

Assessing marine equivalent virtual water supplied by the ocean: a case study of China's coastal areas

Abstract ‘Virtual water’ represents water resources consumed by industrial, agricultural, and other human activities. Virtual water flow is significant for coordinating the global water balance, but most current research has focused on land. In this study, marine products or services are introduced into the research framework of virtual water, and the concept of ‘marine equivalent virtual water’ is introduced. The formulas are proposed from three aspects: food, environment, and power generation. The calculation results for China's marine equivalent virtual water content from 2006 to 2015 show a U-shaped characteristic in which different factors change in importance over time. In addition, the marine equivalent virtual water system structure is analyzed and forecasted for China's coastal areas by 2025. Through the changes in the marine equivalent virtual water system entropy, the research area is divided into three development types: equilibrium, orderly, and change. Each area can be targeted to put forward development proposals. The marine equivalent virtual water proposition quantifies the function of the ocean in the supply of freshwater resources. It provides a new perspective for relieving pressure on terrestrial water resources and is of great significance to water resource management and water policy formulation; this concept should be built upon in future research.

Data Processing Results for the Active Neutron Measurements by the DAN Instrument on the Curiosity Mars Rover

This paper presents the methods of soil parameter estimation from neutron probing data that are used when processing the data from the DAN experiment on the Martian surface. We discuss the data preprocessing steps that enable us to compare experimental data to a Monte-Carlo numerical model, algorithms used to estimate equivalent water and chlorine content for standard soil composition and to dynamically analyse the soil parameters in non-standard cases. We also provide the water and chlorine content estimates and compare them with the SAM experiment data.

Caracterización Glaciológica de Chile

Se realizó una caracterización glaciológica de Chile, la cual incluyó la determinación del número, superficie y el equivalente en agua contenida en los glaciares a nivel nacional (Incluidos los glaciares rocosos y campos de hielo patagónicos). La caracterización glaciológica de Chile se realizó mediante datos extraídos del Inventario Nacional de Glaciares de la Dirección General de Aguas (DGA) con actualización al año 2014, generación de información en base a procesamiento del inventario de glaciares e información bibliográfica. Dentro de los resultados, se pudo establecer que Chile posee un total estimado de 24.114 glaciares con una superficie de 23.641 km2. No obstante, esta cantidad de hielo se manifiesta con grandes diferencias regionales a lo largo del país, aumentando de norte a sur. El equivalente en agua contenida de todos los cuerpos de hielo a nivel nacional corresponde a un total&#x0D; estimado de 3.175 km3.