Equitation Science Research Articles

Rider impacts on equitation

Equestrianism is popular worldwide, with millions of horses and riders participating in competitive horse sports and non-competitive leisure riding. Riders have a duty of care or responsibility for their horses and should aim to optimise their health and welfare. Despite this, limited research has explored the effectiveness and impact of equitation practice, equine management and training techniques on equine performance and welfare. The International Society for Equitation Science promotes enhanced equine welfare through an objective and evidence based approach to equine management and training, via education and research. This review explores the impact of the rider on equitation practice and how rider education could inform equine management and training regimens to promote health, welfare and performance. The experience of the rider will influence their riding capabilities, decision-making and their horse’s ridden performance. Matching the personality and experience of horses and riders can create a positive partnership. Riding is a physical activity; therefore rider fitness can also influence the horse’s performance and physical capacity. An unbalanced rider will not be able to give clear and consistent aids to the horse therefore affecting their behaviour when ridden. The horse will have to adapt their locomotion to account for the moving weight of the unbalanced rider which increases the physiological demands of exercise. Psychological influences can also change the way a rider interacts with their horse. Therefore the informed rider will ensure they are physically and psychologically prepared to ride. Decision making is a key part of rider responsibility. Riders, owners and keepers of horses will determine training and management regimens, which should be designed to support the workload expected of the horse. Similarly, riders should be capable of identifying potential risks of injury and be able to recognise pain and the physical representation of injury in the horse. Such knowledge should then be applied to adapt management and exercise regimes accordingly. To safeguard the horse, the responsible rider needs to be educated and informed, to make them aware of the impact of decisions they make, on their equine partner. Further research within equitation science is required to build an evidence base to support the development of educated and responsible riders. The horse-rider relationship is complex. The inability of the horse to verbalise its emotions and pain places significant responsibility on the rider to ensure that the animal’s health and welfare is optimised through informed management and riding. The responsible rider should exert a positive impact upon the horse and the partnership, applying scientific principles when training and managing their horse to promote health, welfare and performance to achieve a positive horse-rider relationship.

Application of learning theory in horse rescues in England and Wales

In England and Wales the welfare of animals, including horses, is protected by the Animal Welfare Act 2006. Welfare agencies play a role in the investigation of equine welfare concerns and catching, containing, transporting and boarding (caring for) horses that have been rescued. Horses regularly have to be rescued in difficult circumstances from challenging and potentially dangerous environments. Equitation science uses a multi-disciplinary approach to objectively explain horse-human interactions and determine the efficacy of horse training practices and their impact on the horse. This paper reviews common horse rescue practices used by welfare agencies in the UK and evaluates them using a learning theory-based equitation science framework to determine whether they are effective, humane and safe. Due to the debilitated state many horses are found in physical health is often prioritised over psychological well-being, and the rescue process itself has the potential to negatively impact on the horse’s mental state, for example through flooding and learned helplessness. Anecdotal evidence suggests that rescue personnel may not fully understand how horses learn, particularly with regards to the use of negative reinforcement. In addition, there may be a lack of appreciation that all horse-human interactions are potentially part of a learning process that result in the horse being trained. Rescue practices may inadvertently trigger fear responses and behaviours indicative of conflict, potentially putting human safety at risk and contributing to the development of fearful, dangerous and/or unwanted learned behaviours that require re-training at a later date. Ultimately, such practices may negatively impact on the horse’s recovery and affect the charity’s ability to successfully re-home the horse. This review highlights the need for welfare agencies to continue to develop their knowledge and skills in the light of new evidence, particularly with regards to the ethology of horses, their mental abilities and how they learn. Further research is also needed to elucidate the true impact rescue practices have on both the short and long-term welfare of the horse.

The application of learning theory in horse training

The millennia-old practices of horse training markedly predate and thus were isolated from the mid-twentieth century revelation of animal learning processes. From this standpoint, the progress made in the application and understanding of learning theory in horse training is reviewed including a discussion of how learning processes are employed or otherwise under-utilised in training. This review describes the process of habituation and the most commonly applied desensitisation techniques (systematic desensitisation, counter-conditioning, overshadowing, response prevention) and propose two additional techniques (approach conditioning and stimulus blending). The salience of different types of cues, the interaction of operant and classical conditioning and the impact of stress are also discussed. This paper also exposes the inflexibility and occasional inadequacy of the terminology of learning theory when translated from the research laboratory situation to the practical setting in horse training. While learning theory provides a rich toolbox for riders and trainers, the training process is subject to the simultaneous use of multiple learning processes. In addition, learning/behavioural outcomes and trained responses are not just the result of simple stimulus-response based interactions but are further shaped by arousal, affective and attachment states. More research is needed in these areas. For the field of equitation science to progress and to improve clarity and use of learning processes, changes in nomenclature are required. In particular, the use of the terms ‘positive’ and ‘negative’ as descriptive labels in both reinforcement and punishment modalities are unacceptably misleading for everyday use. These labels inhibit the understanding and recognition of the learning processes that these terms supposedly represent, yet the learning processes they describe are vital for horse riders, handlers and trainers to understand. We therefore propose that these labels should be re-labelled more appropriately as ‘addition’ or ‘subtraction’ reinforcement/punishment. This would enlighten trainers on the correct application of learning theory, and safety and welfare benefits for people and horses would follow. Finally it is also proposed that the term ‘conflict theory’ be taken up in equitation science to facilitate diagnosis of training-related behaviour disorders and thus enable the emergence of improved training practices. The optimal use of learning theory should be established as a fundamental principle in equestrian education.

Applied neurophysiology of the horse; implications for training, husbandry and welfare

Understanding the neural circuits underlying equine behaviour has the potential to help optimise strategies of husbandry and training. This review discusses two areas of neurophysiological research in a range of species and relates this information to the horse. The first discussion focuses on mechanisms of learning and motivation and assesses how this information can be applied to improve the training of the horse. The second concerns the identification of the equine neurophysiological phenotype, through behavioural and genetic probes, as a way of improving strategies for optimal equine husbandry and training success. The review finishes by identifying directions for future research with an emphasis on how neurophysiological systems (and thus behaviour) can be modified through strategic husbandry. This review highlights how a neurophysioloigical understanding of horse behaviour can play an important role in attaining the primary objectives of equitation science as well as improving the welfare of the horse.

The role of the ethogram in equitation science

The development of a comprehensive ethogram that could be used to record the behaviour of the ridden horse in a range of different scenarios would provide a valuable resource for researchers within equitation science. However, the relevance of the behaviours included in such an ethogram and guidelines on how these behaviours should be interpreted need to be resolved before such a resource could be universally adopted. The aim of this review is to summarise and evaluate the ethograms used by researchers within equitation science to date, including comparisons between studies and information relating to additional measures taken. Evidence for behavioural interpretation based on equine social behaviour, qualitative behavioural assessment, physiological measures, specific situations and subjective assessment of ‘rideability’ is discussed with reference to the results and conclusions drawn by the authors of the studies included in the review. The behavioural signs of conflict between horse and rider and the potential sources of this conflict, including discomfort, pain, fear and frustration, are identified. To date the most common use of ridden horse ethograms has been in the evaluation of training methods and dressage performance, with the spotlight being on welfare concerns, in particular in relation to head and neck position. It is suggested that future work should include the development of ethograms that are relevant in other equestrian disciplines, where they have the potential to contribute to furthering understanding of the challenges faced by ridden horses and the behaviours associated with positive and negative responses to these. Although the association between specific behaviours and physiological measures was found to be inconsistent in many cases, and individual differences occurred, behavioural observation is still the primary means of evaluating the performance and welfare of the ridden horse. Consequently it is imperative to know what behaviours are important and why. By combining the evidence from the range of available sources it will be possible to get closer to an accurate interpretation of the meaning of different ridden horse behaviours. The evaluation of training methods and the adoption of appropriate performance criteria will only be possible when there is sufficient evidence on which to base these conclusions.

The importance of learning theory and equitation science to the veterinarian

The work of veterinarians when handling horses exposes them to high risk of injury. Among equine practitioners, the incidences of work-related injuries and work days lost due to injury are high. Equine veterinary practitioners’ knowledge of learning theory and equitation science is minimal. Increasingly veterinarians are expected to provide a leadership role in animal welfare, including behaviour medicine. However, due to deficiencies in veterinary training, which traditionally focuses on physical aspects of health, veterinarians may be under equipped to deal effectively with all aspects of animal behaviour. Advancing veterinarians’ understanding of the application of learning principles for horses would improve safety, increase ease of handling and restraint during clinical procedures and increase clinical efficacy. As the risk of injury declines, so too would the risk of litigation. Through example, veterinarians are ideally placed to influence and educate equestrian personnel in best practice handling and restraint methods. Training methods that do not align with the horse’s natural learning abilities reduce the likelihood of optimal performance and increase the frequency of problem behaviours as well as jeopardising equine welfare. Detection of inappropriate training practices is an essential part of the veterinarian’s role in identifying and addressing causes of sub-optimal performance in the equine athlete. Poor performance and problem behaviours that result from the use of inappropriate training practices may contribute significantly to the current levels of wastage in the horse industry. Education of veterinarians in equitation science could play a pivotal role in reducing wastage and improving horse welfare globally.

The role of biomechanical analysis of horse and rider in equitation science

Equestrian sports are unique in that they involve the participation of two athletes that differ greatly in morphology yet are able to move together harmoniously; experienced riders not only move in phase with the horse, they can even improve the consistency of the horse’s movements. The motion of the horse imposes perturbations on the rider that differ in magnitude and direction according to gait. In faster gaits where suspension phases are present, the rider must accommodate greater vertical and horizontal accelerations of the horse’s trunk through three-dimensional movements of their axial body segments. The rider, in turn, can improve the horse’s performance through correct training, or cause it to deteriorate through faults in the rider’s position or incorrect application of the aids. This review addresses the current state of knowledge of the biomechanics of the horse-rider interaction, with reference to the ways in which the emerging field of equitation science can help to improve equine welfare by enhancing rider awareness of horse behaviour and movement, as well as the impact of the rider on the horse.

An Objective Measure of Noseband Tightness and Its Measurement Using a Novel Digital Tightness Gauge.

Noseband tightness is difficult to assess in horses participating in equestrian sports such as dressage, show jumping and three-day-eventing. There is growing concern that nosebands are commonly tightened to such an extent as to restrict normal equine behaviour and possibly cause injury. In the absence of a clear agreed definition of noseband tightness, a simple model of the equine nose-noseband interface environment was developed in order to guide further studies in this area. The normal force component of the noseband tensile force was identified as the key contributor to sub-noseband tissue compression. The model was used to inform the design of a digital tightness gauge which could reliably measure the normal force component of the noseband tensile force. A digital tightness gauge was developed to measure this parameter under nosebands fitted to bridled horses. Results are presented for field tests using two prototype designs. Prototype version three was used in field trial 1 (n = 15, frontal nasal plane sub-noseband site). Results of this trial were used to develop an ergonomically designed prototype, version 4, which was tested in a second field trial (n = 12, frontal nasal plane and lateral sub-noseband site). Nosebands were set to three tightness settings in each trial as judged by a single rater using an International Society for Equitation Science (ISES) taper gauge. Normal forces in the range 7–95 N were recorded at the frontal nasal plane while a lower range 1–28 N was found at the lateral site for the taper gauge range used in the trials. The digital tightness gauge was found to be simple to use, reliable, and safe and its use did not agitate the animals in any discernable way. A simple six point tightness scale is suggested to aid regulation implementation and the control of noseband tightness using normal force measurement as the objective tightness discriminant.

Safely introducing horses to novel objects: A pilot investigation into presentation techniques

The work of veterinarians when handling horses exposes them to high risk of injury. Among equine practitioners, the incidences of work-related injuries and work days lost due to injury are high. Equine veterinary practitioners’ knowledge of learning theory and equitation science is minimal. Increasingly veterinarians are expected to provide a leadership role in animal welfare, including behaviour medicine. However, due to deficiencies in veterinary training, which traditionally focuses on physical aspects of health, veterinarians may be under equipped to deal effectively with all aspects of animal behaviour. Advancing veterinarians’ understanding of the application of learning principles for horses would improve safety, increase ease of handling and restraint during clinical procedures and increase clinical efficacy. As the risk of injury declines, so too would the risk of litigation. Through example, veterinarians are ideally placed to influence and educate equestrian personnel in best practice handling and restraint methods. Training methods that do not align with the horse’s natural learning abilities reduce the likelihood of optimal performance and increase the frequency of problem behaviours as well as jeopardising equine welfare. Detection of inappropriate training practices is an essential part of the veterinarian’s role in identifying and addressing causes of sub-optimal performance in the equine athlete. Poor performance and problem behaviours that result from the use of inappropriate training practices may contribute significantly to the current levels of wastage in the horse industry. Education of veterinarians in equitation science could play a pivotal role in reducing wastage and improving horse welfare globally.

Training for a safer leisure horse: A pilot study investigating differences in heart rate between exposures to unknown stimuli

Equitation encompasses a range of activities in which horses interact closely with humans. The need to ensure both horse management and equitation practice is ethical and sustainable is becoming emphasized globally. Robust and rigorous measurement is critical to objective assessment of practice. This review describes the outcomes of technology application within generic equine science and specific equitation science studies including heart rate monitoring, electromyography, infrared thermography, pressure algometry and remote recording of behaviour and cognitive functioning. The impact of pressure and tension applied by saddles, girths, head gear and gadgets is considered along with subtle behavioural measurements such as eye blink rate, behavioural switching and laterality, some of which reveal aspects brain functioning that have direct relevance to training. Well designed, reliable technology certainly has the potential to provide researchers with a panacea to problems relating to accuracy, precision and experimenter bias, ushering in a ‘golden age of equitation’. However, to reach this stage careful consideration must be given to experimental logistics such as sample selection, device calibration and data processing. A series of potential drawbacks with the use of Technology are identified including managing noise and increasing signal strength, dealing with practical implementation issues and managing the volume of data in order to conduct appropriate analysis to reach meaningful conclusions. Technology users are warned against the temptation to engage in Abductive Science when discussing the output of equitation science methodologies. Putting good research into practice, and vice versa, is crucial to future-proofing equitation and horse welfare.

A pilot study on the application of an objective scoring system

Equitation encompasses a range of activities in which horses interact closely with humans. The need to ensure both horse management and equitation practice is ethical and sustainable is becoming emphasized globally. Robust and rigorous measurement is critical to objective assessment of practice. This review describes the outcomes of technology application within generic equine science and specific equitation science studies including heart rate monitoring, electromyography, infrared thermography, pressure algometry and remote recording of behaviour and cognitive functioning. The impact of pressure and tension applied by saddles, girths, head gear and gadgets is considered along with subtle behavioural measurements such as eye blink rate, behavioural switching and laterality, some of which reveal aspects brain functioning that have direct relevance to training. Well designed, reliable technology certainly has the potential to provide researchers with a panacea to problems relating to accuracy, precision and experimenter bias, ushering in a ‘golden age of equitation’. However, to reach this stage careful consideration must be given to experimental logistics such as sample selection, device calibration and data processing. A series of potential drawbacks with the use of Technology are identified including managing noise and increasing signal strength, dealing with practical implementation issues and managing the volume of data in order to conduct appropriate analysis to reach meaningful conclusions. Technology users are warned against the temptation to engage in Abductive Science when discussing the output of equitation science methodologies. Putting good research into practice, and vice versa, is crucial to future-proofing equitation and horse welfare.

052 Equine welfare in a competitive setting–What can ten-plus years of research by the equitation science community tell us? (And what critical pieces are still missing?)

052 Equine welfare in a competitive setting–What can ten-plus years of research by the equitation science community tell us? (And what critical pieces are still missing?)

The Contribution of Equitation Science to Minimising Horse-Related Risks to Humans.

Simple SummaryEquitation science describes an approach to horse training and riding that focuses on embracing the cognitive abilities of horses, their natural behaviour, and how human riders can use signalling and rewards to best effect. This approach is concerned with both horse welfare and rider safety, and this review discusses how equitation science can minimise risk to humans around horses and enhance horse welfare.Equitation science is an evidence-based approach to horse training and riding that focuses on a thorough understanding of both equine ethology and learning theory. This combination leads to more effective horse training, but also plays a role in keeping horse riders and trainers safe around horses. Equitation science underpins ethical equitation, and recognises the limits of the horse’s cognitive and physical abilities. Equitation is an ancient practice that has benefited from a rich tradition that sees it flourishing in contemporary sporting pursuits. Despite its history, horse-riding is an activity for which neither horses nor humans evolved, and it brings with it significant risks to the safety of both species. This review outlines the reasons horses may behave in ways that endanger humans and how training choices can exacerbate this. It then discusses the recently introduced 10 Principles of Equitation Science and explains how following these principles can minimise horse-related risk to humans and enhance horse welfare.

Evolving protocols for research in equitation science

Within the emerging discipline of Equitation Science, the application of consistent methodology, including robust objective measures, is required for sound scientific evaluation. This report aims to provide an evaluation of current methodology and to propose some initial guidelines for future research. The value of research, especially that involving small sample sizes, can be enhanced by the application of consistent methodology and reporting enabling results to be compared across studies. This article includes guidelines for experimental design in studies involving the ridden horse. Equine ethograms currently used are reviewed and factors to be considered in the development of a ridden-horse ethogram are evaluated. An assessment of methods used to collect behavioral and physiological data is included and the use of equipment for measurements (e.g., rein-tension and pressure-sensing instruments) is discussed. Equitation science is a new discipline, subject to evolving viewpoints on research foci and design. Technological advances may improve the accuracy and detail of measurements but must be used within appropriate and valid experimental designs.

Recent research on operant conditioning in horses.

Abstract This paper introduces the key challenges encountered when investigating the human-horse interface. With a focus in recent research on the application of learning theory in horses, it reviews the progress made in the emergent discipline of equitation science over the past decade. An appreciation of the role of learning theory in horse training is still in its infancy and is still refuted by traditionalists who believe that the horse can be trained as a willing participant that knows what is being asked of it. Despite this predictable resistance, the growing body of peer-reviewed evidence shows how equitation science reveals equestrian techniques that are difficult to justify within an ethical framework. Regardless of what some traditional critics claim, equitation science does nothing to undermine the emotional bonds that humans share with horses. On the contrary, it forces those who use horses to adopt a horse-centric approach to their training; an approach that ensures the cognitive powers of their trainees is not overestimated. The strength of this approach lies in acknowledging that training deficits are the main cause of poor performance, and that rider safety and horse welfare can be compromised by sloppy application of learning theory. The present paper describes the tools being used to study rider-horse interactions and concludes with a summary of the abiding challenges in applying learning theory to equitation.

Skin Displacement in the Equine Neck

IntroductionKinematic studies, using reflective skin markers, are commonly used to investigate equine neck motion in equitation science and for rehabilitation purposes. In order to interpret the registrations accurately, the degree of skin displacement has been described for the limbs and back, but not for the neck. The aim of the present study was to investigate the degree of skin displacement in the equine neck.MethodsRadiopaque skin markers were applied to the skin over the first six cervical vertebrae of six healthy horses. Radiographs were taken in three standardized neck positions in the sagittal plane: control (horizontal neck), “on the bit” and “nose to carpus”. The scales of the images were normalized and calculation of skin displacement was performed by use of a coordinate system, dividing the displacement into measurements on an x‐axis parallel to the vertebra's longitudinal axis and a y‐axis perpendicular to the x‐axis. The non‐parametric paired Wilcoxon rank test was employed to study the differences in distances in x‐ and y‐directions, and statistical significance was set to P<0.05.ResultsBetween control and “nose to carpus” positions, there were significant differences in the marker locations, related to the underlying vertebra, in x‐line for C1–6, and in y‐line for C3–6. The differences in marker locations were between 3 ± 9 and 44 ± 14 mm, depending on the marker.ConclusionsThe outcome of this study indicates that skin displacement is an important factor to consider when investigating equine neck motion with skin marker methodology.Ethical Animal ResearchThe study was approved by a local Ethical Committee on Animal Experiments (Uppsala, Sweden), with written consent from the horse owners. Sources of funding: none. Competing interests: none.

Evaluation of skin displacement in the equine neck

Kinematic studies, using reflective skin markers, are commonly used to investigate equine joint motion in equitation science and for rehabilitation purposes. In order to interpret the registrations accurately, the degree of skin displacement has been described for the limbs and back, but not yet for the neck. The aim of the present study was to measure sagittal plane skin displacement in the equine neck. Radiopaque skin markers were applied to the skin over the first six cervical vertebrae of six healthy horses. Latero-lateral radiographs were taken in three standardised neck positions in the sagittal plane: control (horizontal neck), ‘on the bit’ and ‘nose to carpus’. The scales of the images were normalised and calculation of skin displacement was done by use of a coordinate system, dividing the displacement along an x-axis parallel to the vertebra's longitudinal axis and a y-axis perpendicular to the x-axis. Mixed models analysis was employed to study the differences in distances in x- and y-directions, and statistical significance was set to PÃ0.05. Between control and ‘nose to carpus’ positions, there were significant differences in skin marker locations, relative to the underlying vertebrae, in the x-direction for C1-6, and in y-direction for C3-6. Between normal and ‘on the bit’ positions, there were significant difference in both x- and y-directions for C6. Differences in marker locations along x- and y-axes, respectively, were 3±9 mm and 44±14 mm. The outcome of this study indicates that skin displacement should be considered when investigating equine neck motion with skin marker methodology.

Problems at the human–horse interface and prospects for smart textile solutions

The significant potential for so-called “smart textiles” in the design of the next generation of devices that measure pressure, tension, moisture, and heat at the humanehorse interface is discussed in this article. Research techniques from theoretical and experimental physics laboratories, combined with wireless technology, can be readily adapted to measure and store metrics for numerous variables in equine structure and function. Activities, such as breathing, the extension and flexion of joints, limb kinematics, and cardiac function, can be logged as indicators of physiological and behavioral conditioning (training). Such metrics may also, one day, support veterinary diagnostics but also play a role in safeguarding sporthorse welfare, especially in elite contexts where the horse may be pushed to its functional limits. As such, they are likely to emerge as an area of great interest to equitation and welfare scientists. It is important to note that smart textiles sense and react to exogenous stimuli via integrated sensors. So, beyond the equitation science laboratory, the emergence of polymers and smart materials may enhance the effectiveness of, or challenge us to completely rethink, traditional items of saddlery, thus improving equitation. The integration of smart textiles in all sorts of extant and emergent equipment for everyday equestrians could, in the future, lead to equipment that responds appropriately to the demands of equitation in its various forms. Rethinking equitation through physics and the use of smart textiles seems to have merit in that it is a novel means of both investigating and addressing problems that compromise the welfare and performance of horses. The purpose of this article is to envision the use of smart textiles in research, clinical, equestrian, and horse care contexts.

The X files: Xenophon re-examined through the lens of equitation science

Abstract This article reviews, through the lens of equitation science, one of the oldest known texts on horsemanship, written by Xenophon, general and horsemaster from ancient Greece. It identifies many instances in which Xenophon's recommendations align with current knowledge about equine ethology and learning theory, although, as one might expect, the explanations for their effectiveness are sometimes lacking. Xenophon counsels against disciplining a horse in anger and the use of relentless rein tension but makes a series of flawed assumptions about contiguity in instrumental conditioning. Because he is held up as the classical master and, therefore, somehow beyond reproach, it is important to understand how Xenophon's work exemplifies many of the pitfalls in thinking that persist in contemporary training. For example, his treatise imbues horses with powers of reasoning that have yet to be demonstrated in any empirical studies. In doing so, it encourages the reader to regard unwelcome behavior as disobedience and, predictably, goes on to justify punishment. The review explores how Xenophon aligns with and counters the recently published principles of ethical horse training. As such, it offers a framework for critiquing all horse-training dogmas.

Equitation Science: Principles and Practice – Science at work

Equitation Science: Principles and Practice – Science at work