Equitation Science Research Articles

Effects of a 15° Variation in Poll Flexion during Riding on the Respiratory Systems and Behaviour of High-Level Dressage and Show-Jumping Horses.

From previous studies, the International Society for Equitation Science has advised that further research be conducted on the physiological/psychological effects of less-exacerbated poll flexion angles. We aimed to evaluate the effects of two riding poll flexion positions with a difference of only 15° on the respiratory systems and behaviour of horses through an evaluation of dynamic airway collapse via over-ground endoscopy, the pharyngeal diameter, pleural pressure, arterial oxygenation and lactate, HR/RR, and the occurrence of conflict behaviours. Twenty high-level dressage and twenty show-jumping horses underwent a 40 min ridden test at a ground angle of 85°; 3 weeks later, they underwent a ridden test at a 100° ground angle (the angle between the ground and the line from the forehead to the muzzle) and in a cross-over design. Using a mixed model for repeated measures, Wilcoxon/Friedman tests were carried out according to the experimental design and/or error normality. For both groups, at 100°, conflict behaviours and upper airway tract abnormalities were significantly more frequent, and the pleural pressure was higher, and the pharyngeal diameter was lower. At 85°, relaxation behaviours were significantly more frequent. Lactate was significantly higher at 100° only in the dressage horses. Compared to the first test at 85°, the HR/RR were significantly lower at the beginning of the second test (at 100°) but higher at the end. The significant differences identified in these dressage and show-jumping horses support the idea that an increase of just 15° in riding poll flexion can have negative effects on the respiratory system and behaviour of a horse and therefore on its welfare.

11th International Conference on Equine Exercise Physiology, Uppsala, Sweden 2022

Abstracts of the 11th International Conference on Equine Exercise Physiology, Uppsala, Sweden, Sunday June 26 to Friday July 1, 2022. A total of 192 abstracts cover a wide range of topics relevant to athletic horses, including biomechanics, cardiorespiratory and musculoskeletal responses to exercise, genetics, and training and nutrition, as well as emerging technologies, physiotherapy, rehabilitation and equitation science. The goal of the International Committee of ICEEP in publishing these abstracts is to disseminate current scientific information to veterinarians, physiotherapists, trainers, owners, and riders, and to foster advances in equine health, welfare and performance.

A Delphi study to determine expert consensus on the behavioural indicators of stress in horses undergoing veterinary care

Horses undergoing veterinary care may perceive the experience to be stressful and their behavioural responses can result in injuries to people involved in their care. Being able to accurately measure the stress response in horses undergoing veterinary care would have potential benefits. Firstly, it may highlight common behavioural indicators that the horse is stressed, which could be used as warning signs that the risk of an aversive reaction is more likely. Secondly, it would inform the development of low stress handling techniques for veterinary procedures. To determine if there was expert consensus on the most appropriate measures to identify stress in horses undergoing veterinary care a two round Delphi analysis was undertaken; involving experts in the fields of equitation science (n = 16), equine veterinarians (n = 10), and animal and behaviour welfare scientists who do not normally work with horses (n = 7). Each round was completed as an online anonymous survey. In the first round (R1) participants viewed 11 scenarios of horses undergoing veterinary care and were asked to assign the degree of stress they perceived the horses were experiencing on a numerical rating scale (from 1 to 10) and describe any behavioural indicators of stress (BI). In the second round (R2) they were asked to rate the usefulness of a list of BI that had been compiled from results in R1. Analysis of participants’ responses and merging of similar terms identified 41 BI in R1. There was poor agreement between participants (kappa = 0.08) on the degree of stress they perceived the horse was experiencing in each scenario (R1), with a wide range of scores used for most scenarios. In R2 participants reached agreement that 34/41 (83 %) BI were useful indicators of stress. BI considered indicative of severe acute stress were most likely to be identified as very useful in assessing horse stress. The results highlighted a variation in the ability of experts to identify when horses were stressed in the veterinary clinic, particularly when horses were not showing very overt behavioural responses. Although a number of BI were identified as useful, it is likely that development of a structured ethogram and training would be required to allow assessment of BIs to be used successfully in the veterinary clinic to reduce the likelihood of human injuries.

Influence of indirect factors and its effect analysis on performance level of Slovak warmblood horse breed

Article Details: Received: 2020-10-21 | Accepted: 2020-11-27 | Available online: 2021-01-31 https://doi.org/10.15414/afz.2021.24.mi-prap.105-108 During their career, horses are affected by a large number of direct and indirect factors. The aim of our study was to determine the effect of indirect factors, such as year of start, sex, breed, number of starts, age and proportion of genes of Slovak Warmblood horse breed. For determination of indirect factors on performance level, results from test efficiency and final placement in showjumping category 4, 5 and 6 years old young horses were used. 540 horses of Slovak Warmblood breed were analysed between 2015 - 2019 and 1155 data samples were collected. Based on the results of the linear model, parameters – the effect of gender and the influence of the gene proportion of Slovak Warmblood horse had statistically significant influence (p<0.05). High significant effect (p<0.001) on performance of Slovak Warmblood horse was observed in parameters – year of start, age during start and breed. Keywords: horse, indirect factors, performance References CASTEJON-RIBER, C. et al. (2017). Objectives, Principles and Methods of Strength Training for Horses. Journal of Equine Veterinary Science , 56, 93-103. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jevs.2017.04.011 De MARÉ, L. et al. (2017). Standardized exercise tests in horses: current situation and future perspectives. Vlaams Diergeneeskundig Tijdschrift , 86(2): 63-72. http://dx.doi.org/10.21825/vdt.v86i2.16290 GOŠČÍK, Z. (1993). Fyziologický základ tréningu koňa atléta. Nitra: Mgr. Marta Ölvecká. ISBN 80-900413-6-1, 70p. GOŠČÍK, Z. (2000). Racionálny tréning športových koní a jeho vplyv na ich dlhodobé využitie. [online]: http://www.horses.sk/'konfer/kratr. htm HENNESSY, K. et al. (2008). Vendor and purchaser expectations: differential market segment requirements for sport horses. In proceeding from 4th International Conference of International Society for Equitation Science . Dublin (p. 53). KEARSLEY, C. G. S. et al. (2008). Use of competition data for genetic evaluations of eventing horses in Britain: analysis of the dressage, showjumping and cross country phases of eventing competition. Livestock Science , 118(1), 72-81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.livsci.2008.01.009 KOENEN, E. (2002). Genetic evaluations for competition traits of warmblood sport horses. In WBFSH seminar , Budapest. KOENEN, E. P. C., ALDRIDGE, L. I. & PHILIPSSON, J. (2004). An overview of breeding objectives for warmblood sport horses. Livestock Production Science , 88(1), 77-84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.livprodsci.2003.10.011 KRATTENMACHER, N. et al. (2014). The role of maternal lineages in horse breeding: Effects on conformation and performance traits. In proceeding from 10th World Congress on Genetics Applied to Livestock Production , Vancouver, Canada (p. 17-22). LUEHRS-BEHNKE, H. et al. (2002). Genetic associations among traits of the new integrated breeding evaluation method used for selection of German warmblood horses. Veterinarija ir zootechnika , 18(40), 90-93. RICARD, A.; BRUNS, E.; CUNNINGHAM, E. P. (2000). Genetics of performance traits. The genetics of the horse , (p. 411-538). http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1079/9780851994291.0000 RICARD, A. & BLOUIN, C. (2011). Genetic analysis of the longevity of French sport horses in jumping competition. Journal of Animal Science , 89(10), 2988-2994. http://dx.doi.org/10.2527/jas.2011-3931 STEWART, I. D., WOOLLIAMS, J. A. & BROTHERSTONE, S. (2010). Genetic evaluation of horses for performance in dressage competitions in Great Britain. Livestock Science , 128(1), 36-45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.livsci.2009.10.011 STEWART, M. et al. (2011). Assessment of positive emotions in horses: Implications for welfare and performance. Journal of Veterinary Behavior: Clinical Applications and Research , 6(5), 296. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jveb.2011.05.014 SCHUBERTOVÁ, Z., PAVLÍK, I. & CANDRÁK, J. (2014). The influence of the genomic data on the showjumping horses performance evaluation. Journal of Central European Agriculture , 15(2), 33-40. http://dx.doi.org/10.5513/JCEA01/15.2.1447 SCHRÖDER, W. et al. (2012). A genome‐wide association study for quantitative trait loci of show‐jumping in Hanoverian warmblood horses. Animal genetics , 43(4), 392-400. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2052.2011.02265.x Van VELDHUIZEN, A. E. (1997). Breeding value estimation for riding horses in the Netherlands. In 48th Ann. Meet. EAAP , Vienna, Austria

Associations between Owners' Reports of Unwanted Ridden Behaviour and In-Hand Behaviour in Horses.

Simple SummaryDangerous ridden behaviour in horses, such as bolting, rearing and bucking, are common and may reflect various aspects of the horses’ immediate experience, history and health. They can have a major impact on human safety and horse welfare because of the common misunderstandings of unwelcome behaviour in horses and popular treatments for so-called problem horses. The current study aimed to identify any in-hand behaviours associated with these dangerous ridden behaviours evaluated based on responses (n = 1584) to the Equine Behaviour Assessment and Research Questionnaire (E-BARQ). Declining reports of bolting were associated with decreasing problems loading horses onto transporters, increasing social confidence with other horses and other animals, improved leading behaviour and increased tolerance of restraint. Declining reports of rearing were associated with decreasing loading problems, increasing social confidence with other animals and increasing tolerance of restraint. Declining reports of bucking were associated with decreasing loading problems and increasing social confidence with horses and other animals, improved leading behaviour, increasing tolerance of restraint and increasing tolerance of head handling (when bridling/haltering). Findings from the current study could help riders and trainers predict dangerous ridden behaviour before they manifest fully, allowing for remediation that avoids the escalation of force in the training of misunderstood horses and thus improving safety and welfare for both horses and riders.An evidence-based understanding of dangerous or unwelcome behaviour in horses would greatly benefit both horses and humans who interact with them. Using owner-reported data from the Equine Behaviour Assessment and Research Questionnaire (E-BARQ), the current study investigated in-hand behaviours associated with dangerous or unwelcome ridden behaviours, notably bolting, rearing and bucking. Respondents (n = 1584) to the ridden horse section of the E-BARQ answered 42 demographic questions, followed by 268 behavioural items. Parallel analysis was conducted to group individual behaviours into rotated components to create independent and dependent indices. Multivariable general linear modelling and ordinal logistic regression were used to identify behaviours associated with bolting, rearing and bucking. Results revealed that safety-from-bolt increased as social confidence with horses (Odds ratio (OR) = 1.06; 95% confidence interval (cf = 1.02–1.09) and other animals (OR = 1.08; cf = 1.03–1.12), compliance in-hand (OR = 1.10; cf = 1.06–1.16) and tolerance of restraint (OR = 1.05; cf = 1.0–1.11) increased; and decreased as loading problems (OR = 0.95; cf = 0.92–0.99) increased. Safety-from-rear increased as tolerance of restraint (OR = 1.07; cf = 1.02–1.12) and social confidence with other animals (OR = 1.05; cf = 1.01–1.09) increased; and decreased as loading problems (OR = 0.94; cf = 0.91–0.98) increased. Safety-from-buck increased as social confidence with horses (b-value = 0.011, p < 0.001) and other animals (b-value = 0.010, p = 0.002), compliance in-hand (b-value = 0.015, p < 0.001), tolerance of restraint (b-value = 0.009, p = 0.027) and tolerance of haltering/bridling (b-value = 0.016, p = 0.010) increased, and it decreased as loading problems increased (b-value = −0.011, p < 0.001). By revealing, for the first time, that specific behaviours on the ground are associated with particular responses in the same horses when ridden, this study advances equitation science considerably. Identification of risk factors for dangerous behaviour while under saddle can improve safety for horses and riders and highlights the importance of effective and humane in-hand training.

The Development of a Novel Questionnaire Approach to the Investigation of Horse Training, Management, and Behaviour.

Simple SummaryThe way horses are trained and managed influences their behaviour. The Equine Behaviour Assessment and Research Questionnaire (E-BARQ) was developed to gather information on the training, management, and behaviour of domestic horses. An international panel was established to assist with the questionnaire development and the pilot questionnaire collected data on 1320 horses. Statistical analysis revealed the E-BARQ to be a suitable representation of relevant features of horse training and management and the objective reporting of horse behaviour.The Equine Behaviour Assessment and Research Questionnaire (E-BARQ) is a questionnaire instrument developed to obtain quantitative data on the domestic equine triad of training, management, and behaviour of horses. The E-BARQ was developed to identify how changes in training and management impact behaviour over time, to define normal behaviour in horses, and to discover how to improve rider safety and horse welfare, leading to ethical equitation. During the development of the E-BARQ, we also investigated how best to motivate stakeholders to engage with this citizen science project. The pilot version of the E-BARQ collected qualitative data on respondents’ experience of the questionnaire. The pilot questionnaire was developed with the assistance of an international panel (with professional expertise in horse training, equitation science, veterinary science, equestrian coaching, welfare, animal behaviour, and elite-level riding), and was used to collect data on 1320 horses from approximately 1194 owner/caregiver respondents, with an option for respondents to provide free-text feedback. A Rotated Principal Component Analysis of the 218 behavioural, management, and training questionnaire items extracted a total of 65 rotated components. Thirty-six of the 65 rotated components demonstrated high internal reliability. Of the 218 questionnaire items, 43 items failed to reach the Rotated Principal Component Analysis criteria and were not included in the final version of the E-BARQ. Survey items that failed the Rotated Principal Component Analysis inclusion criteria were discarded if found to have a less than 85% response rate, or a variance of less than 1.3. Of those that survived the Rotated Principal Component Analysis, items were further assigned to horse temperament (17 rotated components), equitation (11 rotated components), and management and equipment (8 rotated components) groups. The feedback from respondents indicated the need for further items to be added to the questionnaire, resulting in a total of 214 items for the final E-BARQ survey. Many of these items were further grouped into question matrices, and the demographic items for horse and handler included, giving a final total of 97 questions on the E-BARQ questionnaire. These results provided content validity, showing that the questionnaire items were an acceptable representation of the entire horse training, management, and behavioural domain for the development of the final E-BARQ questionnaire.

Identifying Sources of Potential Bias When Using Online Survey Data to Explore Horse Training, Management, and Behaviour: A Systematic Literature Review

Owner-reported behavioural observations form an essential part of the veterinarians’ diagnosis and treatment plan. The way we train and manage horses affects their behaviour and, in turn, their health and welfare. Current horse training and management practices are largely driven by traditional techniques and longstanding methodologies. These approaches generally lack an evidence base for evaluation purposes. The absence of evidence and evaluation contributes to the persistent use of risky practices and this, in turn, increases risk of potential harms for both horse and rider, and fuels questioning of the equine industry’s current social license to operate. Objective evidence is required to make training and management decisions based on demonstrable best practice. Large-scale experimental or intervention studies using horses are generally not practical because of the associated costs and logistics of gaining ethical approval. Small studies generally lack statistical power and are subject to the effects of many forms of bias that demand caution in the interpretation of any observed effects. An alternative to collecting large amounts of empirical data is the use of owner-reported observations via online survey. Horse owners are ideally placed to report on the domestic equine triad of training, management, and behaviour. The current article highlights three sources of potential bias in a systematic review of literature on large-scale online studies of horse owners’ observational reports that met the following selection criteria: English-language, published, peer-reviewed articles reporting on studies with over 1000 respondents and open access to the survey instrument. The online surveys were evaluated for three common forms of bias: recall, confirmation, and sampling bias. This review reveals that online surveys are useful for gathering data on the triad of horse training, management, and behaviour. However, current use of online surveys to collect data on equitation science (including horse training, management, and behaviour) could be improved by using a standardised and validated tool. Such a tool would facilitate comparisons among equine and equitation science studies, thus advancing our understanding of the impacts of training and management on horse behaviour. The authors of the current review suggest the use of a standardised behavioural and management assessment tool for horses. Such a tool would help define what constitutes normal behaviour within geographically disparate populations of horses, leading to improvements in rider safety and horse welfare.

Sensory Abilities of Horses and Their Importance for Equitation Science.

Vision, hearing, olfaction, taste, and touch comprise the sensory modalities of most vertebrates. With these senses, the animal receives information about its environment. How this information is organized, interpreted, and experienced is known as perception. The study of the sensory abilities of animals and their implications for behavior is central not only to ethology but also to animal welfare. Sensory ability, perception, and behavior are closely linked. Horses and humans share the five most common sensory modalities, however, their ranges and capacities differ, so that horses are unlikely to perceive their surroundings in a similar manner to humans. Understanding equine perceptual abilities and their differences is important when horses and human interact, as these abilities are pivotal for the response of the horse to any changes in its surroundings. This review aims to provide an overview of the current knowledge on the sensory abilities of horses. The information is discussed within an evolutionary context and also includes a practical perspective, outlining potential ways to mitigate risks of injuries and enhance positive horse-human interactions. The equine sensory apparatus includes panoramic visual capacities with acuities similar to those of red-green color-blind humans as well as aural abilities that, in some respects exceed human hearing and a highly developed sense of smell, all of which influence how horses react in various situations. Equine sensitivity to touch has been studied surprisingly sparingly despite tactile stimulation being the major interface of horse training. We discuss the potential use of sensory enrichment/positive sensory stimulation to improve the welfare of horses in various situations e.g. using odors, touch or sound to enrich the environment or to appease horses. In addition, equine perception is affected by factors such as breed, individuality, age, and in some cases even color, emphasizing that different horses may need different types of management. Understanding the sensory abilities of horses is central to the emerging discipline of equitation science, which comprises the gamut of horse-human interactions. Therefore, sensory abilities continue to warrant scientific focus, with more research to enable us to understand different horses and their various needs.

Equitation Science in practice: past, present and future

This chapter considers the decline in wild elephant populations and the consequent establishment of ex situ breeding programmes in the United States and Europe. It describes the historical development of elephant houses and enclosures, methods of containment and the space requirements of elephants. Examples of some of the many new elephant facilities are provided along with a discussion of the cost of keeping elephants under good welfare conditions. The relationships between keepers/mahouts and elephants are examined along with safety issues relating to husbandry methods. The chapter concludes by considering methods for transporting elephants.

Developing a descriptive reference ethogram for Equitation Science

Developing a descriptive reference ethogram for Equitation Science

Standing on the shoulders of giants: building foundations for the future of equitation science

Standing on the shoulders of giants: building foundations for the future of equitation science

Early training of foals using the ISES training principles

Early experiences are known to influence the later behavior of young mammals. Training is an important part of the young thoroughbred racehorse's environment and is likely to be challenging. As with older horses, it is important to apply training methods that take into account the individual's natural behaviour (ethology) and cognition (mental actions and abilities) and to apply them in a consistent manner as possible. Foal NZ are an organization that have successfully implemented the initial training of over 3000 thoroughbred foals to date using the International Society for Equitation Science Training Principles. There are 10 independent principles that focus largely on the principles of animal learning that have been known and used successfully in a range of mammals and birds for decades. This paper emphasizes the importance of commencing training at an early age and describes the application of each training principle with young thoroughbred foals (i.e., those aged less than 8 weeks) in the context of practical training. Foals that have received consistent, evidence-based, initial training are argued to experience better welfare both during training and when they progress to preparation for their future careers. The potential positive outcomes of the application of the International Society for Equitation Science Training Principles are also highlighted for nonracing disciplines and those working in the allied industries such as veterinarians and farriers.

Reliability of a descriptive reference ethogram for equitation science

Abstract An ethogram and its components, correctly defined behavior units, are the fundamental measuring tools for (applied) ethology and, therefore, also for equitation science, the nascent discipline that gathers evidence based on horse training, handling, and riding. However, there is currently no consensus on names and definitions of equine behaviors, and no purely descriptive ethogram for horses is available. As structural descriptions of behavioral units are a starting point for experimental enquiries into their function, cause, or ontogeny, this project sets out to draft and test the reliability of a descriptive reference ethogram for domestic horses (Equus caballus). Classification, names, and definitions of behaviors were descriptive and assigned to categories according to structural similarities. An international panel of participants (n = 23) was established to represent both researchers in equitation science and practitioners, including trainers, riders, coaches, and veterinarians. A part of the ethogram was tested by asking the panel to score 30 short video clips for 20 different behaviors and requesting feedback on the ethogram. Statistical analyses with logistic mixed models showed that variability between observers (

Using the Five Domains Model to Assess the Adverse Impacts of Husbandry, Veterinary, and Equitation Interventions on Horse Welfare.

Simple SummaryUsing an adaptation of the domain-based welfare assessment model, a panel of horse welfare professionals (with professional expertise in psychology, equitation science, veterinary science, education, welfare, equestrian coaching, advocacy, and community engagement) assessed the perceived harms, if any, resulting from 116 interventions that are commonly applied to horses. Scores for Domain 5 (the integrated mental impact) gathered after extensive discussion during a four-day workshop aligned well with overall impact scores assigned by the same panellists individually before the workshop, although some rankings changed after workshop participation. Domain 4 (Behaviour) had the strongest association with Domain 5, whilst Domain 1 (Nutrition) had the weakest association with Domain 5, implying that the panellists considered commonly applied nutritional interventions to have less of a bearing on subjective mental state than commonly applied behavioural restrictions. The workshop defined each intervention, and stated assumptions around each, resulting in a set of exemplar procedures that could be used in future equine welfare assessments.The aim of this study was to conduct a series of paper-based exercises in order to assess the negative (adverse) welfare impacts, if any, of common interventions on domestic horses across a broad range of different contexts of equine care and training. An international panel (with professional expertise in psychology, equitation science, veterinary science, education, welfare, equestrian coaching, advocacy, and community engagement; n = 16) met over a four-day period to define and assess these interventions, using an adaptation of the domain-based assessment model. The interventions were considered within 14 contexts: C1 Weaning; C2 Diet; C3 Housing; C4 Foundation training; C5 Ill-health and veterinary interventions (chiefly medical); C6 Ill-health and veterinary interventions (chiefly surgical); C7 Elective procedures; C8 Care procedures; C9 Restraint for management procedures; C10 Road transport; C11 Activity—competition; C12 Activity—work; C13 Activity—breeding females; and C14 Activity—breeding males. Scores on a 1–10 scale for Domain 5 (the mental domain) gathered during the workshop were compared with overall impact scores on a 1–10 scale assigned by the same panellists individually before the workshop. The most severe (median and interquartile range, IQR) impacts within each context were identified during the workshop as: C1 abrupt, individual weaning (10 IQR 1); C2 feeding 100% low-energy concentrate (8 IQR 2.5); C3 indoor tie stalls with no social contact (9 IQR 1.5); C4 both (i) dropping horse with ropes (9 IQR 0.5) and forced flexion (9 IQR 0.5); C5 long-term curative medical treatments (8 IQR 3); C6 major deep intracavity surgery (8.5 IQR 1); C7 castration without veterinary supervision (10 IQR 1); C8 both (i) tongue ties (8 IQR 2.5) and (ii) restrictive nosebands (8 IQR 2.5); C9 ear twitch (8 IQR 1); C10 both (i) individual transport (7.00 IQR 1.5) and group transport with unfamiliar companions (7 IQR 1.5); C11 both (i) jumps racing (8 IQR 2.5) and Western performance (8 IQR 1.5); C12 carriage and haulage work (6 IQR 1.5); C13 wet nurse during transition between foals (7.5 IQR 3.75); and C14 teaser horse (7 IQR 8). Associations between pre-workshop and workshop scores were high, but some rankings changed after workshop participation, particularly relating to breeding practices. Domain 1 had the weakest association with Domain 5. The current article discusses the use of the domain-based model in equine welfare assessment, and offers a series of assumptions within each context that future users of the same approach may make when assessing animal welfare under the categories reported here. It also discusses some limitations in the framework that was used to apply the model.

Perceptions of Equitation Science revealed in an online forum: Improving equine health and welfare by communicating science to equestrians and equestrian to scientists

Abstract One of the aims of equitation science (ES) is to improve horse welfare through a scientific approach. However, little is known about how equestrians perceive ES. To determine what equestrians think about ES, we analyzed the everyday talk of equestrians participating in an online forum thread debating ES. Using qualitative data analysis techniques, we inferred 4 beliefs about science that prevented the uptake of ES (science discounts feel, science is over-rated, science is a gimmick, and science is reductionist) and one that supported its aims (science is useful and progressive). These beliefs are discussed with respect to the dual systems of rational and intuitive information processing present among any given population, as well as the triune dimensions of decision-making germane to horse welfare issues (ethical, moral, and aesthetic). To avoid unintentionally creating resistance from those who are skeptical about science or ES, we recommend a sensitive welfare-centered research extension and communication strategy that is tailored for audiences and end users beyond the academic production and consumption of ES.

What information might be in the facial expressions of ridden horses? Adaptation of behavioral research methodologies in a new field

Abstract Horses being ridden when in pain is a welfare concern, which deserves investigation. Transfer of behavior-based pain evaluation systems developed for clinical science to ridden horses must be done with caution, since research methods specific for evaluation of pain in equitation science have not been validated. In this commentary piece, we present some concerns about the study designs of two recent studies evaluating facial expressions in ridden horses.

Indicators of stress in equitation

Stress is a generic concept describing the body’s reaction to external stimuli, including both physiological and psychological factors. Therefore, by definition, the assessment of psychological stress in the exercising horse encompasses the problem of teasing apart the psychological and physiological factors both of which result in stress responses. The present study reviews the existing literature on various measures of stress taken specifically in the context of equitation science. Particular attention has been paid to short-term effects, and commonly used measurements of short-term stress include heart rate, a number of heart rate variability parameters, blood or saliva cortisol levels, eye temperature, and various behaviour parameters including in particular behaviour patterns presumably indicative of conflict with the rider’s/trainer’s aids. Inspection of the individual studies’ results revealed that disagreement between these different measures of stress is commonplace. For physiological parameters, the largest proportion of agreement (i.e. both parameters simultaneously indicated either higher, insignificant or lower stress compared to a control treatment) was found for heart rate and heart rate variability parameters, while generally limited agreement was found for cortisol. It appears that cortisol levels may not be particularly useful for assessing/assessment of the valence of a situation in the exercising horse as cortisol levels are predominantly linked to activation and exercise levels. Although heart rate variability parameters reflect in theory more closely sympathovagal balance compared to cortisol levels, great care has to be taken regarding the use of appropriate time-frames, appropriate raw data correction methods as well as the use of appropriate equipment. In spite of its wide-spread and apparently successful use, popular equipment may in fact not be accurate enough under field conditions. Eye temperature is another promising parameter for assessment of psychological stress, but the technique is likewise susceptible to application errors. Given the high susceptibility of physiological parameters to errors at various experimental stages, behavioural rather than physiological parameters may in fact provide more accurate measures of valence when conducting experiments in the exercising horse. Behavioural parameters that appear to be particularly practical in assessing stress in ridden horses’ behaviour are associated with frequencies of behaviour indicative of conflict. However, while increased frequencies of are a good indicator of stress, the absence of conflict behaviour does not provide proof of the absence of stress due to the possible occurrence of conditions such as Learned Helplessness. In future studies, the above issues should be taken into consideration when designing experiments to assess psychological stress in ridden horses.

Equine performance and equitation science: Clinical issues

The quality of equine performance can be influenced by pain, whether or not that results in overt lameness. Recognition of low-grade lameness is challenging, but with careful observation there are many clues which veterinarians, riders and trainers should recognise. Riders and trainers are frequently unable or unwilling to recognise lameness or other behavioural changes that are a manifestation of pain. Work discipline, body size and conformation may be risk factors for lameness. Work surfaces may also have a role. There is an integral relationship between limb and thoracolumbosacral function. There is also an interaction between the rider and thoracolumbosacral function and health. The saddle is an interface between the rider and the horse and saddle-fit for both horse and rider is crucial for optimal thoracolumbar health and function. The tendency of a saddle to persistently slip to one side is most commonly secondary to hind limb lameness. The rider communicates with the horse via the reins and the bit. The design of the bit, its position and size influence oral comfort. Training aids such as draw reins or a Pessoa Training Aid, appropriately used may improve hind limb propulsion. However, there are still wide gaps in our knowledge about strategies to minimise the risks of injuries to the ridden horse, and a need for further research making use of technological advances in the fields of equine biomechanics with the results applied in equitation science.

What we can measure, we can manage: The importance of using robust welfare indicators in Equitation Science

Ever since the phrase, ‘the happy athlete’ was introduced into the FEI rules for dressage (Article 401.1) there have been discussions about what this actually means and whether it is possible to recognize and reward positive emotions in working horses. For those interested in the study of equine behaviour, the use of such subjective terms for assessing horse emotion during training and performance, is interesting in that this suggests that horse trainers, riders and judges feel that there are meaningful behavioural expressions of emotional state that can be accurately assessed whilst the horse is at work and during competition. Although there has been much more research into the recognition of negative emotions such as pain, fear and stress in horses, recently there have been a number of studies attempting to look at what horses choose and how they may express pleasure or even happiness. ‘Putting the welfare of the horse as a happy athlete at the heart of everything we do’, is one of the main values quoted by equestrian bodies, however if we are to manage equine welfare we need to measure it and how successfully this can be done relies upon the development and validation of robust yet practical welfare indicators. Until recently, welfare assessment has traditionally focused on the absence of experiences that induce negative emotions. However, the notions of quality of life, a life worth living and the concept of the happy animal are starting to become more accepted within the animal welfare field with the assumption that if an animal is experiencing positive emotions, then its welfare needs can be said to be met, and if negative, then they are not and welfare is of concern. So the pertinent question is, what is welfare in the context of the horse used for equitation purposes? And what are the most useful welfare indicators for judging the emotional state of an individual horse within the context of the training and performance situation? In this review paper we will examine the results of recent work in this area, and the challenges such research poses both in relation to the science, but also to the use of horses for recreation and sport.

The use of the technology in equitation science: A panacea or abductive science?

Equitation encompasses a range of activities in which horses interact closely with humans. The need to ensure both horse management and equitation practice is ethical and sustainable is becoming emphasized globally. Robust and rigorous measurement is critical to objective assessment of practice. This review describes the outcomes of technology application within generic equine science and specific equitation science studies including heart rate monitoring, electromyography, infrared thermography, pressure algometry and remote recording of behaviour and cognitive functioning. The impact of pressure and tension applied by saddles, girths, head gear and gadgets is considered along with subtle behavioural measurements such as eye blink rate, behavioural switching and laterality, some of which reveal aspects brain functioning that have direct relevance to training. Well designed, reliable technology certainly has the potential to provide researchers with a panacea to problems relating to accuracy, precision and experimenter bias, ushering in a ‘golden age of equitation’. However, to reach this stage careful consideration must be given to experimental logistics such as sample selection, device calibration and data processing. A series of potential drawbacks with the use of Technology are identified including managing noise and increasing signal strength, dealing with practical implementation issues and managing the volume of data in order to conduct appropriate analysis to reach meaningful conclusions. Technology users are warned against the temptation to engage in Abductive Science when discussing the output of equitation science methodologies. Putting good research into practice, and vice versa, is crucial to future-proofing equitation and horse welfare.