Equine Practice Research Articles

Microbes on Clipper Blades after Use and Disinfection in Small Animal- and Equine Practice.

Clipping hair on animals can produce microtraumas of the skin and the dislodgement of microorganisms to the clipper blade. This study evaluates if clipper blades in animal hospitals in Sweden are contaminated with bacteria and/or dermatophytes after disinfection. Eleven clipper blades from three veterinary referral hospitals, including one with a small animal department and an equine department, were sampled for bacteria and dermatophytes. All the hospitals had disinfection routines in accordance with the national recommendations for hygiene in veterinary medicine. The sampled clipper blades were supposed to be disinfected and they were considered to be ready for use by staff. Five sterilized clipper blades were used as controls. The results showed that 64-100% of the disinfected clipper blades, from all three hospitals, were contaminated with bacteria, whereas all the sterilized clipper blades were negative for bacterial growth (p < 0.05). One clipper blade from the equine department was contaminated with dermatophytes. The results indicate that the disinfection routines were not sufficient for removing bacteria from used clipper blades, and that sterilization would be a more reliable way to minimize the risk of contamination.

Prejudicial findings regarding suitability for intended purpose during pre-purchase examinations in a mixed horse population-A retrospective observational study in the United Kingdom.

Pre-purchase examinations (PPEs) are performed for prospective purchasers of horses to identify prejudicial findings that could make animals unsuitable for an intended use. Although this examination process is often standardised, PPEs remain, in large parts, a subjective procedure. In the United Kingdom, PPEs generally consist of either a two stage (two stage vetting [2SV], i.e., general physical examination at rest and basic trot in-hand) or a five stage-examination (five stage vetting [5SV], i.e., general physical exam at rest and after exercise, lameness evaluation including strenuous exercise with re-evaluation after a period of recovery). To identify the proportion of PPEs with prejudicial findings in a mixed horse population in the United Kingdom and to determine those findings. Retrospective observational study. PPE certificates from three first opinion equine practices were reviewed. Data collected included practice identity, examination format (i.e., 2SV or 5SV), PPE outcome, radiographs obtained (yes/no), purchase price, animal signalment, intended use and prejudicial PPE findings, if indicated. Prejudicial findings were grouped in 10 subcategories. Descriptive statistics were obtained for all parameters. Non-normally distributed numeric data between groups were compared using Wilcoxon rank-sum test. Categorical data were compared between groups using Pearson's chi-squared test or Fisher's exact test. Overall, 133 pre-purchase examination certificates were analysed. Seventy-six horses (57.1%) had prejudicial findings: Sixty-one (68.5%) horses undergoing 5SV and 15 (34.1%) of horses undergoing 2SV. Most horses had lameness as the primary prejudicial finding. Horses with a higher purchase price were more likely to undergo 5SV, undergo pre-purchase radiography, and were more likely to have prejudicial findings identified. Data were obtained retrospectively from PPE certificates from a single mixed horse population and different results may have been obtained by analysing a larger number of animals or PPEs of horses intended for different uses, from different geographical regions or undergoing a different PPE format. The level of competition in the intended discipline for horses was not recorded. Analysed data were limited to the information recorded on the PPE certificates, and the original radiographs, ultrasonography images and other additional diagnostic data were not reviewed. Lameness was the most common prejudicial PPE finding. More expensive horses were more likely to undergo a 5SV, have pre-purchase radiographs obtained and have prejudicial findings identified. These results may help inform prospective studies examining the merits of 5SV versus 2SV formats and the value of inclusion of additional diagnostic imaging in PPEs in the general horse population.

Antibiotic use in first opinion equine practice in the United Kingdom: Serial point prevalence surveys in 17 practices

SummaryBackgroundMonitoring antibiotic use (AMU) is a key component of antimicrobial stewardship. Published data on AMU in first opinion equine practice are limited.ObjectivesTo document AMU in first opinion equine practices.Study designRepeated point prevalence surveys.MethodsAMU was recorded one day every month for 12 consecutive months in 17 equine practices.ResultsTwo hundred and fifty‐two horses were prescribed antibiotics across 2273 consultations (excluding routine appointments) (11.1%; 95% CI 9.8%–12.4%). Median number of consultations per practice was 121 (IQR 112–159; range 27–303). Across 17 practices, the proportion of horses receiving antibiotics varied by practice from 0% to 26.4%. Commonest indications for AMU included cellulitis (66; 26.8%), wounds (46; 18.7%), surgical prophylaxis (36; 14.6%), respiratory infection (27; 11.0%) and skin infection (20; 8.1%). Commonest antibiotics prescribed were potentiated sulphonamides (109; 43.6%), oxytetracycline (58; 23.2%), procaine penicillin (40; 16.0%) and doxycycline (36; 14.4%). 45.0% of oxytetracycline use was for surgical prophylaxis. 44.8% of procaine penicillin use was for cellulitis. 28.6% of ‘other antimicrobial’ use was for pyrexia of unknown origin. Use of antibiotics differed significantly depending on the underlying diagnosis (p &lt; 0.001). Median antibiotic dose rates were: potentiated sulphonamides 30 mg/kg (IQR 27–75; range 10–75; n = 96); procaine penicillin 19 mg/kg (IQR 15–23; range 7–30; n = 35); oxytetracycline 6 mg/kg (IQR 5–6; range 4–30; n = 55); doxycycline 10 mg/kg (IQR 10–20; range 7–30; n = 34).Main limitationsWeight of horses were often estimated. Duration of antibiotic courses was not recorded.ConclusionsAntibiotics were prescribed in 11% of nonroutine consultations. Commonest indication for AMU was cellulitis. Potentiated sulphonamides, oxytetracycline and procaine penicillin were the commonest prescribed drugs. Critically important antibiotic use was infrequent. Dose rates varied, but median values were generally appropriate.

Survey of UK veterinary students' perceptions about a career in equine practice

SummaryBackgroundWorkforce shortages are challenges facing veterinary practice. Anecdotal evidence suggests that veterinary students are less interested in entering equine practice than previously.ObjectivesInvestigate veterinary students' perceptions about equine veterinary education and about working in equine practice.Study designObservational study: online survey.MethodsSurvey distributed via social media to veterinary students in the United Kingdom. Open and closed questions to document intended career path of students and evaluate perceptions about careers in equine practice.ResultsSeven hundred and forty‐four students completed the survey—from 10 veterinary schools. 88.8% intended to work in clinical practice (32.9% mixed; 25.3% small animal; 20.2% equine; 10.9% farm; 10.7% other/undecided). Factors considered most important for their first job included: mentoring and support (47.0%), team and practice culture (26.2%), working hours (including out‐of‐hours; 9.2%), location (6.6%), salary and benefits (5.7%) and familiarity with the practice (3.1%). 55.2% felt there were barriers to entering equine practice. 46.9% had ridden a horse regularly; 14.2% had never ridden. Respondents in clinical years rated their university training in equine practice as ‘Excellent’ (10.0%), ‘Good’ (45.9%), ‘OK’ (35.3%), ‘Poor’ (7.0%) and ‘Rubbish’ (1.8%). 48.9% of respondents felt extra mural studies (EMS) had contributed most to their equine training. Statistical associations were identified between the following variables and intention to work in equine practice: owning a horse, having ever ridden a horse, confidence in handling horses, student membership of BEVA and desire to undertake an internship.Main limitationsPotential selection bias.Conclusions20% of students reported an intention to work in equine practice, but risk of selection bias. The results indicate a potential mismatch between the number of students interested in equine practice and the availability of equine jobs for new graduates. Students with pre‐existing equine interest/experience are more likely to want to enter equine practice. EMS appears important for students' training in equine medicine.

Preliminary study to evaluate the use of fast abdominal ultrasonography of horses with colic in first opinion ambulatory practice

SummaryBackgroundColic is the commonest emergency in first opinion equine practice. Early referral is important for horses requiring surgery. Fast localised abdominal ultrasonography of horses (FLASH) is frequently used as a diagnostic tool in the investigation of colic at referral hospitals, but its use in first opinion practice has not been evaluated.ObjectiveTo assess the value of FLASH scanning in the primary assessment of horses with colic in the field, using a portable wireless ultrasound system.Study designProspective study (2018–2021).MethodsAny horse examined for colic as an emergency in a first opinion ambulatory practice was eligible for inclusion in the study. A FLASH examination was performed using a wireless handheld ultrasound scanner, with the images displayed on a smartphone or tablet. The findings on FLASH scans and the outcome of the case (recovered, referred for surgery or euthanised without referral) were recorded.ResultsIn total, 135 equids with acute colic were evaluated. Of the 135 horses, 49 (36%) had an abnormal finding on FLASH scanning, including distended loops of small intestine (n = 34), thickened small intestinal walls (n = 23) and/or distension of the stomach (n = 7). Reduced small intestinal motility was recorded in 52 animals (38%). Follow‐up information was available in all animals: 50 (37%) were euthanised due to clinical deterioration and the owners' decision not to undertake surgery; 85/135 (63%) survived, including 5/85 (6%) that underwent surgery and 80/85 (94%) that resolved with medical management.Main limitationsSmall number of cases. Lack of results of post‐mortem examination of horses that were euthanised. Potential selection bias.ConclusionThe FLASH technique can be valuable in the primary assessment of horses with colic in first opinion ambulatory practice. Further evaluation with more cases is required.

Pattern of prescriptions and prudent use of antimicrobial in horse practice at a Veterinary Teaching Hospital

Antimicrobial prescriptions of the University of Pisa and their compliance with prudent use recommendations were investigated over 11 years (2011−2021). At least one antimicrobial was always prescribed in surgical prophylaxis for the suture of wounds and in 33% of horses with signs of disease of a body system. Antimicrobials were administered in monotherapy (48%) in fixed dose combinations (21%) and empirical combinations (31%). Antimicrobials were mostly (63%) administered by parenteral route, while oral and topical antimicrobials accounted for 14% and 23% of prescriptions, respectively. Gentamicin, benzylpenicillin and ceftiofur were the most prescribed antimicrobials; aminoglycosides, penicillins and cephalosporins were the most common class of antimicrobial prescribed. Protected antimicrobials (WHO HPCIA and rifampicin) represented 24% of antimicrobial dispensations. The pattern of classes of antimicrobial used by body system was broad and included up to eight different pharmaceutical classes. The heterogeneity of antimicrobial use was confirmed by the estimate of the prescription diversity index. Antimicrobial prescriptions were in compliance with prudent use recommendations in terms of availability of diagnosis, respect of the dose range and duration of treatment On the contrary, principles of appropriate antimicrobial use have only been partially observed in relation to off-label use, use of antimicrobials in empirical combination, use of antimicrobial susceptibility tests and use of protected antimicrobials, suggesting that additional interventions are required to improve the responsible use of antimicrobials use in our equine practice.

Accuracy and validation of a point-of-care blood glucose monitoring system for use in horses.

Abnormal blood glucose (BG) levels often seen in critically ill horses are significantly associated with adverse patient outcomes and increased mortality. Rapid and accurate BG monitoring is now considered an essential component of evidence-based equine practice and can provide critical information quickly for treatment. Although several point-of-care (POC) BG monitoring hand-held devices are commercially available for veterinary use, none contains a unique algorithm validated for use in horses. The AlphaTrak 3 (AT3) BG monitoring system is a first-of-its-kind device with an equine-specific algorithm that allows stall-side clinical decision making, and frequent monitoring at minimal cost. As such, AT3 is potentially a preferred alternative to more costly and time-consuming standard diagnostic reference laboratory methods. The objective of this study was to determine the accuracy of the AT3 device in measuring BG levels in equine whole blood samples in comparison to results obtained by the Beckman Coulter AU480 reference analyzer per ISO15197:2013 specifications. Accuracy of the AT3 equine algorithm were initially verified by testing equine blood samples with artificially adjusted blood glucose levels followed by its validation in a field study. Testing with artificially adjusted equine samples (n = 129) showed that 98.9% of glucose measurements ranging from 29 to 479 mg/dL fell within ISO accuracy threshold of ±15 mg/dL or ±15% of the average reference value. In addition, 100% of the AT3 measurements fell in consensus error grid (CEG) zone A, which indicates that test outcomes have a minimal likelihood of adverse clinical impact. In a follow-up field study involving 96 horses, 98.4% of AT3 measurements met the ISO accuracy threshold and 99.2% of AT3 measurements fell in CEG zone A. These results demonstrate that the AT3 glucometer has a high degree of accuracy in horses and is a dependable, convenient, and cost-effective device for accurately monitoring equine BG levels in farm or clinical settings.

Development and Validation of an Equine Castration Model and Rubric.

Castration is one of the most common surgeries performed in equine practice. Veterinary students require deliberate practice to reach competence in surgical procedures including equine castration, but availability of patients limits students' practice opportunities. A recumbent equine castration model was created and evaluated using a validation framework consisting of content evidence (expert opinion), internal structure evidence (reliability of scores produced by the accompanying rubric), and evidence of relationship with other variables, specifically the difference in scores between experts and students. A convenience sample of third-year students who had never performed equine castration (n = 24) and veterinarians who had performed equine castration (n = 25) performed surgery on the model while being video recorded. Participants completed a post-operative survey about the model. All veterinarians (100%) agreed or strongly agreed that the model was suitable for teaching students the steps to perform equine castration and for assessing students' skill. The checklist produced scores with good internal consistency (α = 0.805). Veterinarians performed the castration faster than the students (p = .036) and achieved a higher total global rating score (p = .003). There was no significant difference between groups in total checklist score or individual checklist items, except veterinarians were more likely to check both sides for bleeding (p = .038). The equine castration model and rubric validated in this study can be used in a low-stress clinical skills environment to improve students' skills to perform what is otherwise a challenging field procedure. Model use should be followed with live animal practice to complete the learning process.

The Effects of Antimicrobial Protocols and Other Perioperative Factors on Postoperative Complications in Horses Undergoing Celiotomy: A Retrospective Analysis, 2008-2021.

Recognition of antimicrobial resistance in equine practice has increased over the past decade. The objective of this study was to provide an updated retrospective review of antimicrobial regimens in one tertiary referral hospital and to evaluate the association with postoperative complications. A secondary objective was to evaluate other perioperative factors including surgical procedure, anesthetic and recovery parameters, and the effect of perioperative medications on complications and outcomes. A computerized search of medical records was performed to identify horses undergoing exploratory celiotomy from 1 January 2008 to 31 December 2021. A total of 742 celiotomies were performed (608 completed, 134 terminated intraoperatively). Factors recorded were evaluated using logistic regression for the presence of either incisional infection, postoperative ileus, or other complications postoperatively. Antimicrobial type or timing (pre-, intra-, or postoperative) were not associated with decreased risk of incisional infection or postoperative ileus; however, the duration of NSAID use was positively associated with incisional infection (OR 1.14 per day). Lidocaine and alpha-2-agonist administration postoperatively were also associated with increased incidence of postoperative ileus (OR 21.5 and 1.56, respectively). Poor recovery quality (OR 4.69), the addition of other antimicrobials besides penicillin/gentamicin postoperatively (OR 3.63), and an increased number of different NSAID classes used (OR 1.46 per additional) were associated with other complications. Implementation of enterotomy was associated with decreased risk of other complications (OR 0.64). These findings provide an updated summary of factors associated with postoperative complications in horses undergoing celiotomy.

Assessment of worm control practices recommended by equine veterinarians in Australia.

This study aimed to assess Australian veterinarians' knowledge, perceptions and treatment strategies for worm control in horses with an online questionnaire. The questionnaire comprised 64 questions covering various aspects of: (i) veterinary practice; (ii) the veterinarian's knowledge of gastrointestinal nematodes (GINs) and the importance of parasites in different age groups of horses; (iii) the diagnosis and control of worms; (iv) anthelmintics and anthelmintic resistance (AR); (v) grazing management; and (vi) the means of communication and the discussion between veterinarians and their clients regarding worm control. Following a pilot survey, a link for the questionnaire survey was sent to all (n = 1,148) registered members of Equine Veterinarians Australia in April 2020. The response rate for the questionnaire was 10% (118 of 1,148). The findings of this study illustrate veterinarians' good understanding of aspects of equine parasites, including control. However, respondents mainly recommended frequent, interval-based prophylactic deworming in young horses, and only 40% (96 of 239) diagnosed GIN infections based on faecal egg count (FEC) results in all age groups of horses. Furthermore, only 27% (88 of 330) of the respondents made deworming decisions based on FECs. Most of the respondents recommended macrocyclic lactones (MLs) for all age groups of horses (71%, 481 of 677), and the most frequently used method to calculate the dose of anthelmintics was by estimating the weight of animals visually (53%, 63 of 118). Although the majority of respondents (97%, 115 of 118) perceived AR to be a critical issue in managing worms in horses, 58% (67 of 118) of them were unaware of the status of AR on their clients' properties. Forty-two percent (50 of 118) of the respondents perceived the presence of AR in worms, including pinworms (16%), strongylins (15%), species of Draschia and Habronema (6%), Strongyloides westeri (2%) and tapeworms (1%). Twenty-seven percent (32 of 118) of the respondents rarely discussed equine worm control practices with their clients. This study provides insights into the perception and worm control practices recommended by Australian veterinarians to manage equine parasites. The findings highlight the importance of continued education and awareness of AR, and the use of non-chemical methods as well as consideration of the legislation of prescription-only use of anthelmintics based on FECs to achieve sustainable control of GINs in Australian horses.

Effect of nutraceutical supplementation on semen quality in stallions.

The use of reproductive biotechnologies in equine practice has shown that some stallions are subfertile, so ways to improve fertility have been sought. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of nutraceutical supplementation on improving semen quality in Quarter Horse stallions. Semen from six Quarter Horse stallions was assessed for 4 months every 20days using the computer-assisted semen analysis system. They were evaluated for 60days before supplementation; then, the same stallions were re-evaluated for 60days with nutraceutical supplementation (30g/day). Volume showed no significant difference (p>0.05) with nutraceuticals. Sperm concentration (10x6 ) was significantly higher with supplementation (339.4±17.5 sperm/mL) than without supplementation (224.6±19.9). Sperm abnormalities (%) were significantly (p<0.05) lower with supplementation (14.3±0.6) than without supplementation (19.1±0.4). Sperm kinematic parameters, total motility (TM), progressive motility (PM), rectilinear velocity (VSL), the velocity of the trajectory (VAP) and curvilinear velocity (VCL), were significantly better with supplementation (p<0.05). Based on the results, it is concluded that nutraceutical supplementation improved semen parameters in Quarter Horse stallions.

Investigation of Serum Markers of Hepatic Fibrosis in Equids

Liver disease is common in equine practice, and treatment and prognosis are dependent on histopathologic examination of biopsies. Liver biopsy is invasive and expensive which restricts its use. Serum markers are used to predict hepatic fibrosis in humans. This study aimed to investigate the enhanced liver fibrosis (ELF) test, based on serum Hyaluronic Acid (HA), procollagen III N-terminal peptide (PIIINP), and tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase 1 (TIMP-1) to detect hepatic fibrosis in equids. Four groups were included; two with increased serum concentrations of liver-derived enzymes and a liver biopsy (group H; 10 horses and ponies and group D; 10 donkeys) and two without any evidence of liver disease (group HC; 10 horses and ponies and group DC; 10 donkeys). All samples were analyzed for concentrations of HA, PIINP, and TIMP-1. Given the failure to detect TIMP-1 in most subjects, a novel eELF (equid ELF) score was calculated, based on HA and PIIINP. HA and PIIINP concentrations and the eELF score, were compared with determined hepatic fibrosis. HA, PIIINP, and eELF were significantly greater in horses and ponies with a histopathologic fibrosis score ≥ 2 compared with those < 2. A similar observation was found with donkeys for HA and eELF. A significant correlation was found between fibrosis score and HA, PIIINP, and eELF for horses and ponies, and between fibrosis score and HA and eELF in donkeys. Serum HA and the eELF score might be useful serum markers to predict and monitor hepatic fibrosis in horses, ponies, and donkeys.

Digitalisation in pre-purchase examination and prospects for an equine health database in Germany-Results of an online survey among equine veterinarians.

Digital recording and storage of health data are becoming increasingly important in the fields of both human and veterinary medicine. There is currently a lack of information on the level of digitalisation among equine veterinarians in Germany and their attitudes towards advanced digitalisation. To collect opinions of equine veterinarians about (1) digital data collection in pre-purchase examinations (PPEs), and (2) the establishment of an equine health database in Germany. Cross-sectional survey. An online survey was developed and distributed via email exclusively to equine veterinarians in Germany. After 40 days of data collection, answers were used for descriptive statistical analyses. The survey was sent to 1055 recipients, of which 147 (13.9%) participated and 130 survey responses from equine veterinarians could be used for analyses. Most respondents were working in an equine practice (77.9%) and performing PPEs (93.8%), for which they mostly used printed protocols (86.0%). The PPE protocol of the German Equine Veterinary Association as a paper print was the format most frequently used (47.1%). The majority of participating equine veterinarians (90.2%) would use a digital protocol for PPEs if available. Concerns were expressed about user-friendliness (55.9%) and integration into the daily veterinary routine (54.6%). Regarding the establishment of an equine health database, 72.3% of the respondents stated they would appreciate it. However, about one-third would support such a development only under certain conditions: guaranteed data safety, collection of objective data or involving the opinion of other stakeholders. Low response rate, potential non-response bias and wide range of question topics. A positive attitude towards digital PPEs and an equine health database in Germany became apparent. To facilitate further progress, it would be crucial to consider the concerns and conditions identified in this study to generate maximum compliance.

The potential impact of artificial intelligence in equine practice

Artificial intelligence has the potential to impact the veterinary industry. This article outlines the current and potential uses of artificial intelligence tools in equine veterinary practice across both clinical and non-clinical aspects of working with horses. Examples of wider uses across the industry by horse owners and trainers are also summarised and discussed. The use-case example of the pre-purchase examination is discussed as an area highlighting how artificial intelligence could have multiple impacts, increasing confidence and improving efficiency and outcomes for equine vets. Additionally, important considerations including potential risks and ethical concerns of the development and use of artificial intelligence as a currently unregulated technology are also discussed.

Survey of veterinary students’ perceptions about working in equine practice

Survey of veterinary students’ perceptions about working in equine practice

Antibiotic stewardship in equine practice: How do we currently use antibiotics?

Antibiotic stewardship in equine practice: How do we currently use antibiotics?

Dietary Transitions Toward Sustainable Horse Feeding.

Sustainability is the balancing act of optimizing the use of current resources without compromising the current or future environment. Within the agriculture sector the primary focus of sustainability has been to reduce environmental pollution, specifically greenhouse gasses (GHG) emissions, nitrogen emissions, and leaching. For the equine industry the first step towards sustainability is the documentation and critique of current feeding and management practices to permit modifications to enable the industry meet social and legislative obligations. As a monogastric hindgut fermenter on a per kg bodyweight basis the horse has relatively lower GHG emissions compared to ruminants. However, there are several opportunities to further reduce the environmental impact of the equine industry. The majority of these relate to subtle changes, or consideration of, improving feed conversion, using alternative ingredients, and management of fecal material associated with intensive husbandry. To initiate the journey towards sustainability this review documents opportunities with current equine feeding and management practices to reduce the environmental impacts of the equine industry.

Survey of horse transportation in Switzerland: practices and issues.

This study aimed to describe equine transportation practices and transport-related behavioural and health problems in Switzerland and to identify possible associations between them. An online survey was disseminated to Swiss equine industry members and questioned respondents' details, transport practices (before, during, and after journeys), horse transport-related behavioural (TRPBs) and health problems (TRHPs) experienced in the previous 2 years. The survey generated 441 valid responses, analysed using descriptive statistics and logistic regression models (outcomes: TRPBs, TRHPs, injuries, diarrhea). Respondents were mainly women (79,5 %), younger than 50 years (75 %), and amateurs (80 %). Most of the respondents transported one or two horses (88,7 %), for a short (< 2 hours) journey (75,5 %). Pre-transport practices were performed by 72,1 % of respondents and horses' fitness for travel was assessed in the majority of cases (66,5 %). During the journey, horses were tethered (92,6 %) and monitored (52,7 %). The majority of respondents (74,9 %) assessed also the horses' fitness after travel. TRPBs were reported by 13,4 % of respondents. TRPBs' likelihood increased when the respondents were women, performed pre-transport practices and training for transport, did not assess drinking behaviour and general health before journey, and the horses experienced also TRHPs. TRHPs were reported by 34 % of the respondents and were associated with younger respondents, use of trucks, doing pre-transport practices, wearing protections, not monitoring horses during transport and preexisting TRPBs. Among TRHPs the most frequent were injuries (72,1 %) and diarrhea (41 %). The likelihood of injuries increased with younger respondents, use of trucks, wearing protections, lack of monitoring during transport and TRPBs. While younger respondents, longer journeys, wearing protections, lack of monitoring during transport, measuring rectal temperature after journeys and TRPBs increased the odds of reporting diarrhea. Even though our findings must be interpreted with caution due to survey limitations, considering that the found associations do not always mean causation, they highlight the strengths and weaknesses of transport practices in Switzerland and report evidence to implement current regulations on the protection of horse welfare during transport.

Use of antibiotics in the treatment of respiratory disorders in UK equine practice

Use of antibiotics in the treatment of respiratory disorders in UK equine practice

Antimicrobial use in first opinion equine practices assessed by repeated point prevalence surveys

Antimicrobial use in first opinion equine practices assessed by repeated point prevalence surveys