Equestrian Events Research Articles

Pre‐exercise hypervolaemia is not detrimental to arterial oxygenation of horses performing a prolonged exercise protocol simulating the second day of a 3‐day equestrian event

Hyperhydration, prior to prolonged moderate-intensity exercise simulating the 2nd day of a 3-day equestrian event (E3DEC), may induce arterial hypoxaemia detrimental to performance. Because moderate-intensity exercise does not induce arterial hypoxaemia in healthy horses, the effects of pre-exercise hypervolaemia on arterial oxygenation were examined during a prolonged exercise protocol. Blood-gas studies were carried out on 7 healthy, exercise-trained Thoroughbred horses in control and hyperhydration experiments. The study conformed to a randomised crossover design. The sequence of treatments was randomised for each horse and 7 days were allowed between studies. Hyperhydration was induced by administering 0.425 g/kg bwt NaCl via nasogastric tube followed by free access to water. The exercise protocol was carried out on a treadmill set at a 3% uphill grade and consisted of walking at 2 m/sec for 2 min, trotting for 10 min at 3.7 m/sec, galloping for 2 min at 14 m/sec (which elicited maximal heart rate), trotting for 20 min at 3.7 m/sec, walking for 10 min at 1.8 m/sec, cantering for 8 min at 9.2 m/sec, trotting for 1 min at 5 m/sec and walking for 5 min at 2 m/sec. NaCl administration induced a significant mean +/- s.e. 15.5 +/- 1.1% increase in plasma volume as indicated by a significant reduction in plasma protein concentration. In either treatment, whereas arterial hypoxaemia was not observed during periods of submaximal exercise, short-term maximal exertion caused significant arterial hypoxaemia, desaturation of haemoglobin, hypercapnoea, and acidosis in both treatments. However, the magnitude of exercise-induced arterial hypoxaemia, desaturation of haemoglobin, hypercapnoea, and acidosis in both treatments remained similar, and statistically significant differences between treatments could not be demonstrated. It was concluded that significant pre-exercise expansion of plasma volume by this method does not adversely affect the arterial oxygenation of horses performing a prolonged exercise protocol simulating the 2nd day of an E3DEC.

Hyperhydration prior to a simulated second day of the 3-day moderate intensity equestrian competition does not cause arterial hypoxemia in Thoroughbred horses

Dehydration and the associated impairment of cardiovascular and thermoregulatory function comprise major veterinary problems in horses performing prolonged exercise, particularly under hot and humid conditions. For these reasons, there is considerable interest in using pre-exercise hyperhydration to help maintain blood volume in the face of the excessive fluid loss associated with sweat production during prolonged exertion. However, recently it was reported that pre-exercise hyperhydration causes arterial hypoxemia in horses performing moderate intensity exercise simulating the second day of an equestrian 3-day event competition (E3DEC) which may adversely affect performance (Sosa Leon et al. in Equine Vet J Suppl 34:425-429, 2002). These findings are contrary to data from horses performing short-term maximal exertion, wherein hyperhydration did not affect arterial O2 tension/saturation. Thus, our objective in the present study was to examine the impact of pre-exercise hyperhydration on arterial oxygenation of Thoroughbred horses performing an exercise test simulating the second day of an E3DEC. Control and hyperhydration studies were carried out on seven healthy Thoroughbred horses in random order, 7 days apart. In the control study, horses received no medications. In the hyperhydration experiments, nasogastric administration of NaCl (0.425 g/kg) 5 h pre-exercise induced a plasma volume expansion of 10.9% at the initiation of exercise. This methodology for inducing hypervolemia was different from that of Sosa Leon et al. (2002). Blood-gas tensions/pH as well as plasma protein, hemoglobin and blood lactate concentrations were measured pre-exercise and during the exercise test. Our data revealed that pre-exercise hyperhydration neither adversely affected arterial O2 tension nor hemoglobin-O2 saturation at any time during the exercise test simulating the second day of an E3DEC. Further, it was observed that arterial blood CO2 tension, pH, and blood lactate concentrations also were not affected by pre-exercise hyperhydration. However, hemodilution in hyperhydrated horses caused an attenuation of the expansion in the arterial to mixed-venous blood O2 content gradient during phases B and D of the exercise protocol, which was likely offset by an increase in cardiac output. It is concluded that pre-exercise hyperhydration of horses induced in the manner described above is not detrimental to arterial oxygenation of horses performing an exercise test simulating the second day of an E3DEC.

The mighty working of a symbol: From idea to organization

The mighty working of a symbol: From idea to organization

Self-Efficacy and Other-Efficacy in Dyadic Performance: Riding as One in Equestrian Eventing

One-day equestrian eventing comprises three disciplines: dressage, show-jumping, and cross-country. Participants in the present study were 187 riders (38 M, 149 F) competing in one of two intermediate-level 1-day competitions. Participants’ perceptions of their own (self-efficacy) and their horses’ abilities (other-efficacy) were assessed 30 minutes prior to each stage of competition and examined in relation to subsequent riding performance. For dressage, self efficacy (β = –.20, p < .05) and other-efficacy (β = –.26, p < .01) were each able to explain unique variance in dressage performance (adj. R2 = .16). However, for both show-jumping and cross-country disciplines, neither form of efficacy was associated with the corresponding measure of riding performance. The results for show-jumping and cross-country may be explained by the lack of variability and heavily skewed nature of the performance data in these two contexts. Consistent with previous research, the results for dressage suggest that self-efficacy may be an important predictor of performance in sport. However, in line with theorizing by Lent and Lopez (2002), the results suggest that other-efficacy may also be an important predictor of behavioral enactment within performing dyads.

Motivations of equestrian tourists: an analysis of the colonial cup races

While the motivations of visitors to mainstream professional sporting events have been well documented, comparatively little is known about equestrian tourists. The purpose of this study was to assess the fan motivations, sport identification and expenditures of tourists attending an annual steeplechase. The event chosen for this study was the 31st Annual Colonial Cup Races, held in South Carolina, USA. Wann and Branscombe's (1990) team identification and Wann's (1995) sport fan motivation scales were adapted for use in this study. Responses from 222 equestrian tourists were used to answer four research questions. Regardless of respondent sex, equestrian tourists were most likely to be motivated by entertainment and group affiliation needs and least likely to be motivated by escape and self-esteem needs. However, comparisons based on identification level (low, medium, high) resulted in significant differences in four of the seven motivations and on-site expenditures. Further, there was a significant positive relationship between identification level and six of the seven motives tested as well as on-site expenditures. Sport identification may prove to offer useful insight into motivations and expenditures within an equestrian context. Marketing efforts for equestrian events can be adapted to promote identification and reflect the motivations that are descriptive of this tourism niche.

Overuse injuries in equestrian athletes

Some 30 million Americans are involved in equestrian sports. Although there is significant literature regarding catastrophic injury, there is very little literature that addresses overuse injury and its effect on rider and horse. As the horse and rider function as a unit, overuse injuries to the rider can affect the horse's training and responsiveness. Sports physicians treating riders should understand correct posture in the saddle and its alteration by muscular imbalance and injury. This review discusses common equestrian events, and common overuse injuries in recreational and competitive riders.

Overuse Injuries in Equestrian Athletes

Some 30 million Americans are involved in equestrian sports. Although there is significant literature regarding catastrophic injury, there is very little literature that addresses overuse injury and its effect on rider and horse. As the horse and rider function as a unit, overuse injuries to the rider can affect the horse's training and responsiveness. Sports physicians treating riders should understand correct posture in the saddle and its alteration by muscular imbalance and injury. This review discusses common equestrian events, and common overuse injuries in recreational and competitive riders.

The Olympic Games in antiquity

The Olympic Games are an invention of the ancient Greeks. They were held in Olympia in a quadrennial rhythm, without interruption for ca. 1200 years. Compared with the modern Olympics, the ancient programme was small: running events (over several distances), the pentathlon, and the so-called ‘heavy’ events: wrestling, boxing and pankration. Various equestrian events (with and without chariots) completed the programme. This programme is discussed with the athletes, their social background and ideology. Although in ancient Olympia a wreath of olive-leaves – a forerunner of our modern gold medal – was the first and only prize, there was no amateurism in Greek athletics. Olympic athletes happily participated in highly rewarding money games both before and after the Olympics. Money was not despised; abuse of money, in the form of Wine, Women and Song was criticized, but some athletes, then as now, were unable to resist the temptations of life.

Herzgeräusche als Zufallsbefunde bei tierärztlichen Kauf- oder Verfassungsuntersuchungen - Befundung und Verlauf bei 77 klinisch gesunden Pferden

Seventy-seven horses referred to the Utrecht university clinic for accidentally found heart murmurs, were examined clinically and ultrasonographically. In a follow-up, the influence of these findings on later performance and sale value was evaluated. The 77 horses referred between January 1997 and February 2002 were divided into 2 groups. In the horses of group A, murmurs were found during pre-purchase examination (n=62) and in the horses of group B, during equestrian events (n=15). Twenty-four horses were between I and 5 years old and 53 horses were 5 years or older (48% of the latter group performed at a to high level). In 62 (80%) horses, murmurs were found on the left side, in 12 (16%) on both sides and in 3 (4%) on the right side. In 7% of the horses, the intensity of the murmurs was loud (grade V or VI), in 53% moderate (grade III and IV) and in 40% minor (grade I or 11). In 63 horses, mitral insufficiency (MI) was found: in 12 only MI, in 14 MI + tricuspid insufficiency (TI), in 14 MI + aortic insufficiency (AI), in 20 MI + TI + AI, and in 3 MI + other problems. Six horses also showed atrial fibrillation (AF), Fifteen horses with MI showed increased left atrial diameter (14 cm or more). In most cases, auscultation and echocardiographical findings correlated well. Telephone questionnaires were obtained from 71 owners, while 10 owners could not give any information on present performance of the horse. Five owners of horses with severe alterations reported decreased performance and 1 horse had died. Twenty owners mentioned that their horse was not sold, while 12 horses were sold for a lower price. It is concluded that cardiac murmurs in Warmblood horses found during pre-purchase examination or veterinary control are often not related to decreased performance but may have significant influence on sale value.

As actividades desportivas no Porto de 1900

The sporting practices in the city of Porto in the year 1900 A book published in the 1940’s criticised the people of Porto because they considered themselves as sports people when all they did was watch their own team’s games and argue about football. Its author alleged that, in Porto in 1900, people took part in swimming, “jogo do pau”, fencing, equestrian events, gymnastics, rowing, cycling, bullfighting and weightlifting, and that young people were neither disinterested in physical activity nor in competitive sport. In order to establish the quality of the abovementioned opinion, we intend, with this article, to highlight the range of sports activities in Porto, at the beginning of the last century. We also intend to reveal the social importance of these activities in the country‘ s second largest city, based on the impact they had on two newspapers published at that time.

The carceres of the Herodian hippodrome/stadium at Caesarea Maritima and connections with the Circus Maximus

The Herodian hippodrome/stadium at Caesarea was exposed between 1992 and 1998. It runs parallel to the shore between the Herodian harbour and the theatre, at the location specified by Josephus. Josephus refers to the structure as an amphitheatre but it is clear from him and from the archaeological evidence to be described below that equestrian events were an integral part of the games held in it. In the very late Republic and early Empire, the term amphitheatre was used indifferently to designate a stadium or a hippodrome rather than the traditional Roman oval amphitheatrum. Josephus also calls this building ‘the great stadium’ in conjunction with events at the time of the procurator Pontius Pilate in A.D. 26, and it was still known by that name in the 4th c. It was inaugurated in 10/9 B.C. The games held included athletics (gymnika), horse- and chariot-races (hippika), and Roman spectacles (munera gladiatorum and venationes), so the structure had to serve the needs of the contestants and spectators of all these events. The present article is a preliminary report that focuses on the carceres excavated by the team from the University of Haifa, but it will first be helpful to summarize the history of the building as a whole as known from the adjacent work by the Israel Antiquities Authority.

View and visions for nursing: health care leaders speak out.

View and visions for nursing: health care leaders speak out.

Rider injury rates and emergency medical services at equestrian events.

BACKGROUND: Horse riding is a hazardous pastime, with a number of studies documenting high rates of injury and death among horse riders in general. This study focuses on the injury...

Age Categories and Chronology in the Hellenistic Theseia

THREE ATHENIAN INSCRIPTIONS from the second century B.c. (IG II2 956-958) are the best-preserved of a series of texts containing decrees honoring agonothetai of the Theseia and catalogues of victors in various events.These documents, it is now generally agreed, refer to the penteteric version of a festival known from earlier inscriptions which has come to be called the Greater Theseia.1 Interest has centered on the lists' chronological value, as they preserve the names of three archons, Aristolas, Anthesterios, and Phaidrias, usually dated to 161/0, 157/6, and 153/2 respectively.2 Consequently, research into the age categories of victors has been aimed at establishing the archon dates rather than at elucidating the organization of the games themselves. But, in fact, a thorough examination of the age categories in use at the Theseia will show that one of these archons needs to be redated and that an important assumption about the nature of the festival requires revision. The contests of the Theseia usually comprised a torch race (lampas), athletic events making up a gumnikos agon, as well as competitions in horsemanship and military displays. In one particular year, the agonothete's expansion of the equestrian events caused him to be praised for putting on a fully-fledged hippikos agon in addition to the normal complement (IG II2 957, lines 4-5). In the list from that year, the events are as follows:3

Thermoregulation: Base Mechanisms and Hyperthermia

Metabolic HP is extremely high during exercise in horses. Thermoregulation in horses is primarily dependent on evaporative heat loss from sweating in particular. Under thermoneutral conditions, these mechanisms are sufficient to allow horses to perform high-intensity exercise for long periods. Under thermally stressful conditions, particularly in high ambient humidity, the efficiency of evaporative heat loss mechanisms is compromised and may result in horses developing hyperthermia. Early recognition and vigorous treatment are essential to limit the consequences of heat stress in horses. Meticulous planning and management of equestrian events that are held under thermally stressful conditions are essential to ensure the welfare of competing horses and their riders. The conditioning program of horses expected to compete under thermally stressful conditions must also make adequate provision for acclimatization to the hot, humid conditions.

Capodanno senza danno: The effects of an intervention program on fireworks injuries in Naples : P. D'Argetiio, L. Cafaro, F. Santonastasi, F. Taggi, N. Binkin. American Journal of Public Health, 86(1), 84–86

Professional horse riding-related injuries have not been studied before in Hong Kong, although horse racing takes place very regularly in the territory. In addition, the equestrian events of the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games will come to Hong Kong. This study analysed the pattern of horse-related injury among patients who presented to a trauma centre in a teaching hospital in Hong Kong.Information from the trauma centre database was analysed retrospectively. The database includes trauma patients who had sustained potentially severe injuries that warranted initial assessment and resuscitation in a trauma resuscitation room (triage category 1 or 2). Data analysed included demographic variables, causes and mechanisms of injury, anatomical injuries, anatomical and physiological trauma scores, and patient outcome.Between January 2001 and June 2005, 2312 trauma patients were entered into the database. Thirty-six (1.6%) patients had sustained horse-related injuries (mean age 34 years, range 17–54; male to female ratio 32:4), all whilst at work in the Jockey Club. Twenty-two patients were injured between midnight and 09:00 h. This group stayed in the resuscitation room for longer prior to admission compared with patients presenting between 09:00 h and midnight (median time 127 min (interquartile range [IQR] 57–183) versus 58 min (IQR 43–83), p = 0.06). Twenty-five patients fell from horseback, whilst 11 were kicked by the horse.Twenty patients had a single injury and 16 patients had multiple injuries. Eighteen patients had injuries to the thorax, abdomen, thoracolumbar spine or pelvis. Eleven patients had head, face and cervical spine injuries and 11 had limb injuries. Twenty-five patients were admitted, including four admitted to the intensive care unit (ICU). Ten patients required surgery. Median (standard deviation [S.D.]) probability of survival was 0.996 (0.052) and median revised trauma score (RTS) (S.D.) was 7.841 (0.624). There were no fatalities. Potentially serious horse-related injuries presented once every 6 weeks.Most injuries are minor and affect the trunk but occur out of hours. Helmets, face shields and body protectors should be worn when riding or handling horses.

Recognition and management of fluid and electrolyte changes in performance horses

SummaryIn summary, the treatment of metabolic disorders under field conditions at equestrian events requires a basic understanding of the effects of the fluid, electrolyte and energy losses that contribute to the development of the disorders.Early recognition and treatment with oral or i.v. fluids, even in the absence of clinical dehydration, in the quantities outlined above, often alleviate the disorders without the need to administer any other drugs. Furthermore, drugs that may be indicated for treatment of these disorders are often contraindicated in dehydrated horses.

Intracranial hematoma in experienced teenage equestrians

Intracranial hematoma in pediatric equestrians is rare, notwithstanding the lack of uniform standards and requirements for the use of protective headgear during equestrian events. We report two teenage helmeted equestrians who sustained severe head trauma with intracranial hematoma due to falls during equestrian events. Current recommendations for the use of equestrian headgear are reviewed.

Regulatory Aspects of Drug Use in Performance Horses

The control of drug use in performance horses and the policing of rules and regulations to prevent unauthorized drug use are important tasks for agencies overseeing equestrian events. This article describes the roles of the American Horse Shows Association, the Federation Equestre Internationale, and the Association of Racing Commissioners International, Inc, in the policing of drug use in horses competing in events under their control.

Nationalism in the scoring of dressage competitions at the 1988 Olympics

Summary The possible existence of nationalistic bias in the scoring of dressage tests in the competition at the 1988 Seoul Summer Olympic Games was investigated. A panel of 5 judges simultaneously scored each performance, with scores totaled for each competitor. Team competition required riding the FEI Grand Prix de Dressage test. A national team consisted of 4 horse-rider pairs, with the top 3 scores counted for the national team total. Four out of 5 judges scored horse-rider pairs from their own nation, for a total of 16 out of 53 competitors scored by co-national judges. Nineteen riders, 9 of whom were scored by co-national judges, competed for individual medals by riding the prescribed FEI Grand Prix Special test. The scores of judges rating their co-nationals were compared by analysis of variance with scores of judges rating competitors from other nations. In the team competition, scores by co-national judges averaged 4.67 points higher ( Although interpretation of these results is limited by the small number of judges and competitors involved, they suggest that a tendency for nationalistic bias was present in the judging of dressage performances in a world-class equestrian event.