Inequality Index Research Articles

Educational Disparities in Age-related Hearing Loss and Hearing Aid Use across Age, Gender, and European Region.

Affecting one in five adults in Europe, hearing loss (HL) is linked to adverse health outcomes, including dementia. We aim to investigate educational inequalities in hearing health in Europe and how these inequalities change with age, gender, and region. Utilizing 2004-2020 data from the Harmonised Survey of Health, Ageing, and Retirement in Europe (SHARE), a representative sample of Europeans aged 50 and above, we analyse: 1) age-standardized prevalence of HL and hearing aid (HA) use among eligible individuals; 2) educational inequalities therein using the Relative Index of Inequality (RII) across age, gender, and European regions. The prevalence of self-reported HL increases with age, is greater among men, and is consistently higher among those with lower levels of education. At age 50-64, particularly in Southern and Eastern Europe, low-educated women experience more than three times the risk of HL compared to highly educated women. These inequalities diminish as women age. Northern Europe is a front-runner in meeting HA needs. Southern and Eastern Europe lag behind, with less than two in ten individuals eligible for HAs utilizing them. Substantial variations in the educational gradient of hearing health across age, gender, and European regions underscore the importance of targeting specific subpopulations in efforts to mitigate health inequalities. Of particular concern is the regional discrepancy between the prevalence of HL and the use of HAs. The example of Northern Europe suggests that there is unused potential to improve healthy ageing in Europe through enhanced access to HAs.

Attitudes towards violence against women among second-generation refugee, migrant and native Swiss adolescents in Zurich, Switzerland

Research on violence against women (VAW) attitudes among adolescent migrant communities is limited. This study examines VAW attitudes in second-generation refugee and migrant adolescents compared to native adolescents in Zurich, Switzerland. Participants completed surveys at ages 15 and 17 as part of a longitudinal study. The research explores differences in VAW attitudes between groups and identifies factors associated with higher support for VAW. Findings show low overall support for VAW across all groups, with second-generation refugee adolescents significantly more likely to support VAW than native adolescents. However, regression analyses controlling for gender, parental education and maternal gender inequality index revealed no direct relationship between migration background and VAW attitudes without interaction terms. Significant interactions were found between refugee background and moral neutralisation of aggression at ages 15 and 17 and with experiencing corporal punishment at age 15. Higher VAW attitudes among second-generation refugees are linked to increased moral neutralisation of aggression and experience of corporal punishment. Interestingly, those with average levels of these factors demonstrate lower VAW attitudes compared to both second-generation migrants and natives, indicating successful assimilation. Overall, while VAW attitudes are generally low among second-generation refugees, targeted interventions addressing moral neutralisation of aggression could mitigate residual higher support during this developmental phase.

Changing trends in the global burden of polycystic ovarian syndrome-related infertility over the past 30 years: retrospective data analysis of the global burden of disease study 2019

ObjectivesPolycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) represents a significant and persistent metabolic disorder, emerging as a leading factor contributing to infertility. Despite its profound impact, there remains an inadequate understanding of the global burden of PCOS-related infertility across diverse regions and countries. The aim of this study was to evaluate the global, regional, and national burden of PCOS-related infertility from 1990 to 2019.MethodsThe data utilized in this study were derived from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019. The global burden of PCOS-related infertility was collected and subsequently categorized based on age and sociodemographic index (SDI) spanning the period from 1990 to 2019. Temporal trends in PCOS-related infertility over the past three decades were scrutinized employing joinpoint regression analysis, enabling the determination of annual percentage change (APC) and average annual percentage changes (AAPCs). The association between the age-standardized prevalence rate (ASPR), age-standardized YLD rate (ASYR), and the AAPCs in ASPR and ASYR and the SDI was performed using linear regression analysis. Additionally, the Slope Index of Inequality (SII) and the Relative Concentration Index were employed to assess the inequalities in the distribution of infertility burdens related to PCOS.ResultsGlobally, the number of prevalent cases and YLDs due to PCOS-related infertility increased from 5,997,589 (95% UI: 3,772,636-8,764,813), and 35,201 (95% UI: 13,282 − 80,010) in 1990 to 12,131,849 (95% UI: 7,625,027 − 17,945,905), and 69,694 (95% UI: 26,756 − 160,420) in 2019, respectively. The age-standardized rates of prevalence and YLDs consistently increased over the same period, with respective AAPCs of 2.45 (95% CI: 2.4–2.5) and 2.37 (95% CI: 2.32–2.43), respectively. The number of prevalent cases and rate of PCOS peaked in the 25–29 years. Populations with high SDI had the highest ASPRs and ASYRs of PCOS-related infertility, while populations with low SDI exhibited more pronounced upward trends. Additionally, linear regression analysis revealed that ASPRs and ASYRs were positively correlated with SDI (R = 0.419 and 0.433, respectively, all P < 0.0001), and the AAPCs in ASPRs and ASYRs were negatively correlated with SDI (R= − 0.570 and − 0.571, respectively, all P < 0.0001). The SII for prevalent cases and YLDs were 121.94 (95% CI: 94.66–149.23) and 0.75 (95% CI: 0.55–0.85) to 146.56 (95% CI: 110.27–182.86) and 0.91 (95% CI: 0.71–1.03), respectively.ConclusionThe prevalent cases and YLDs, along with the ASPRs and ASYRs attributable to PCOS-related infertility, exhibited a consistent upward trajectory over the past 30 years. This escalation was closely associated with factors such as age, socioeconomic status, and geographic location. It is crucial to bolster healthcare management, devise timely and efficacious prevention and control strategies, and provide epidemiological theoretical evidence to alleviate the burden of PCOS-related infertility.

Ecological study of the association between the English national vaccination programme and area deprivation inequalities in COVID-19 mortality

ObjectiveTo understand how area deprivation inequalities in COVID-19 mortality changed during the national vaccination programme in England and to identify the extent to which these inequalities might be explained by...

Global, regional, and national burden of early-onset colorectal cancer from 1990 to 2021: a systematic analysis based on the global burden of disease study 2021

BackgroundTo provide estimates and trends for burdens of early-onset colorectal cancer (EOCRC) from 1990 to 2021 at the global, regional, and national levels, and to provide projections of EOCRC burden through 2030.MethodsA trend analysis based on the Global Burden of Diseases 2021. The joinpoint regression model was used to analyze the temporal trends on EOCRC burden by calculating the corresponding average annual percent changes (AAPCs). A decomposition analysis was used to understand the drivers of the changes in EOCRC burden. The relationship between socio-demographic index (SDI) and disease burden was assessed by the concentration index of inequality. In addition, we constructed a Bayesian age-period-cohort model to predict the burden of EOCRC worldwide from 2022 to 2030.ResultsGlobally, the burden of EOCRC increased significantly between 1990 and 2021, with the incidence rising from 5.43/100000 to 6.13/100000 (AAPC = 0.39), and the prevalence increasing from 29.65/100000 to 38.86/100000 (AAPC = 0.87). Over the same period, the death rate decreased from 2.98/100000 to 2.30/100000 (AAPC = − 0.84), whereas the disability-adjusted life-year (DALY) decreased from 148.46/100000 to 115.42/100000 (AAPC = − 0.82). In 2021, East Asia and China had the highest burden of EOCRC regionally and nationally. Decomposition analysis indicated the increase in EOCRC burden was mainly driven by population growth. The concentration index revealed that high-SDI countries had a greater burden of EOCRC than low-SDI countries. The global incidence and prevalence of EOCRC will rise continuously from 2022 to 2030.ConclusionsBetween 1990 and 2021, the incidence and prevalence of EOCRC have escalated, whereas the death rate and DALY rate have declined. The burden varied with sex, SDI, and geographical locations. Given the rising trend of EOCRC burden, coordinated efforts are needed to reduce the burden posed by this malignancy.

Trends in Socioeconomic Inequalities in the Prevalence of Chronic Non-Communicable Diseases in China: Evidence from Shaanxi Province During 2003-2013.

Background: The link between chronic non-communicable diseases (NCDs) and poverty in underdeveloped countries is debated. This study aims to examine socioeconomic inequalities related to NCDs and assess the contributing factors to these disparities. Methods: The study utilized data from the National Health Services Survey in Shaanxi Province for 2003, 2008, and 2013, having 71,766 respondents. The concentration index (CI) was employed to rigorously quantify the degree of socioeconomic inequality in the prevalence of non-communicable diseases (NCDs). The CI decomposition identified the contribution of each variable, while the horizontal inequity (HI) index was calculated annually to assess changes in inequality. Additionally, a Probit model was employed to examine the significant determinants contributing to the occurrence of NCDs. Results: The results show a significant increase in NCD prevalence with age, particularly for individuals aged 60 and above, who experienced a 286.55% rise from 2003 to 2013. Higher education levels are associated with decreased NCD prevalence, as evidenced by a 74.13% reduction for those with high school education or above. Additionally, wealthier individuals had a 15.31% lower prevalence of NCDs, indicating that higher socioeconomic status correlates with a reduced likelihood of chronic diseases. Conclusions: The study finds that NCD prevalence significantly increases with age, while higher education levels and greater wealth are associated with reduced prevalence. These findings highlight the need to target older populations and lower socioeconomic groups for effective NCD prevention and management. Policies should focus on improving educational opportunities and socioeconomic conditions to reduce the burden of NCDs, particularly among older and economically disadvantaged groups.

Measurement and determinants of economic inequality between migrants and non-migrants: evidence from Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition analysis of Uttar Pradesh, India

This paper investigates the economic inequality between migrants and non-migrants employing Gini inequality index and Lorenz curve based on household consumption expenditure from the Periodic Labor Force Survey (PLFS) for 2020–2021. The findings indicate a significant economic inequality gap between migrants and non-migrants across the geographical regions of Uttar Pradesh, India. Additionally, highlights the effect of caste and religious affiliation on migratory patterns and living standards. Based on the Ordinary Least Squares regression results with Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition, the demographic and socioeconomic factors such as education, gender, religion, caste and households’ size significantly identify the economic inequality gap between migrants and non-migrants. Our findings provide significant evidence for effective delivery of social protection policies at regional level. Moreover, intra-government and inter-government cooperation should be taken into the consideration for migrant workers in bringing their healthy economic and social status in both origin and destination places.

Analysis of burden and equality of lower extremity peripheral artery disease in people aged 40 and above in the Belt and Road partner countries from 1990 to 2021.

To analyze the disease burden and inequalities of lower extremity peripheral artery disorders (LEPAD) among people aged 40 and above in the Belt and Road partner countries from 1990 to 2021. Data were retrieved from the Global Burden of Disease 2021 database. The age-standardized prevalence rates, mortality rates, and the annual rate of years lived with disability (YLDs) of LEPAD were analyzed. Trends were measured using the estimated annual percentage change (EAPC), and the slope index of inequality (SII) and concentration index were used to quantify the absolute and relative inequalities. In 2021, the age-standardized prevalence and mortality rates of LEPAD were 3168.26/105 and 3.09/105, increasing by 4.30% and 19.31% compared to 1990, and YLDs rates decreased by 4.00%. Females had higher age-standardized prevalence and YLDs rates, while males had higher mortality rates. The EAPC for prevalence rates was slightly higher in males (0.22%) than in females (0.17%); while the EAPC of age-standardized mortality rate was 2.02% for females, compared to 1.45% for males. From 1990 to 2021, the age-standardized YLDs rates decreased from 16.23/105 to 15.58/105, with a faster decline in females (－0.12%) than in males (－0.06%). LEPAD prevalence varied across countries, with higher burdens in Europe and faster growth in Gulf states. Higher socio-demographic index countries had higher prevalence. Inequity improved, with the SII at 52.90/105 and concentration index at 0.038 in 2021. Gender disparities persisted, with concentration index rising to 0.058 in females and falling to －0.026 in males. LEPAD prevalence and mortality among people aged 40 and above in the Belt and Road partner countries were risen, while YLDs rates were decreased from 1990 to 2021. Significant differences exist among peoples with different gender and countries, highlighting the need for enhanced screening, health education, and shared public health strategies across the Belt and Road partner countries.

Gender inequality and cultural values in explaining gender differences in positive and negative emotions: A comparison of 24 countries during the COVID-19 pandemic

Abstract The coronavirus pandemic posed a major challenge to mental health. Existing evidence shows that COVID-19 is related to poor emotional well-being, particularly among women. However, most work on the subject uses single-country samples, limiting the ability to generalize the disparity or explain it as a function of societal variables. The present study investigates the expression of positive and negative emotions during the pandemic as a function of gender and across 24 countries (N = 49,637). Strong gender differences emerged across countries, with women reporting more negative emotions (anxious, depressed, nervous, exhausted) and less positive emotions (calm, content, relaxed, energetic) than men. The gender gap in positive emotions was significantly wider in countries higher in individualism and narrower in countries higher in power distance. For instance, differences in emotions were larger in Western countries high in individualism, such as the USA, the UK, Italy, and France, and smaller in countries with higher collectivism and power distance, such as China, Malaysia, and South Korea, with a few exceptions like Japan and Brazil. These gender differences across countries were not explained by country-level gender inequalities indicators (GGGI and GII). Interestingly, the national severity of the pandemic, an epidemiological factor, reduced gender differences in positive emotions. These results underscore the importance of considering cultural and national factors when assessing gender differences in well-being.

Attitudes toward sexual and reproductive health and rights and their associations with reproductive agency: a population-based cross-sectional study in Ethiopia, Kenya, and Zimbabwe

We investigated the association between values and attitudes toward sexual and reproductive health and rights (SRHR) and gender equality, with reproductive agency in Ethiopia, Kenya, and Zimbabwe. Using 2020-21 World Values Survey (WVS) data (n = 3,096), we utilized the SRHR Support Index including five subindices to gauge SRHR attitudes, the WVS Equality Index for gender equality values, and the perceived level of freedom of choice and control over whether, when, and how many children to have as a proxy for reproductive agency. Descriptive statistics, bivariate, and multivariable logistic regressions were used to analyse how values and attitudes differed between respondents of high vs low reproductive agency using the median as cutoff, stratified by country and sex. Country, education, subjective social class, and religion were associated with reproductive agency. Adjusted analyses indicated associations between supportive values and attitudes towards equitable masculinity norms, SRHR interventions and gender equality, with high reproductive agency. Associations varied more between countries than by sex. Findings suggest an association between SRHR and gender equality values and attitudes and the level of reproductive agency, and underscore the importance of addressing values and attitudes in context-specific interventions. Measures of SRHR progress should be critically reviewed and complemented with self-assessed – as opposed to researcher-ascribed – items to support the successful implementation of global SRHR agendas.

Type-2 Backstepping T-S Fuzzy Bionic Control Based on Niche Symmetry Function

Niche can reflect the changes in the quality of the ecological environment and the balance of ecological state. The more advanced the ecosystem, the more complex and higher-order nonlinearities and uncertainties that are presented. For such an uncertain parameter system with complex nonlinearity, backstepping fuzzy control is a good control method. When the backstepping control method is introduced into the Type-2 fuzzy T-S control principle, the equality index symmetry function composed of ecological factors is used as the backstepping control consequence, and the Lyapunov function is constructed to analyze the stability and find out the adaptive law of the ecological factors in the equality index symmetry function of the control consequence. This reflects that the individual organisms always develop in their own favorable direction, highlighting the bionic intelligent control of the method. Through simulation analysis, the Type-2 Backstepping control method is effective in stability and parameter tracking, which reflects the self-development ability and self-coordination ability of individual organisms, highlighting the physical background and symmetry of the bionic intelligent control of this method.

Assessing cross-country inequalities in global burden of gastrointestinal cancers: slope and concentration index approach

PurposeNew cases and deaths of gastrointestinal cancers are predicted to increase significantly by 2040. This study aims to explore cross-country inequalities and trends in global burdens of colon and rectum cancer (CRC), esophageal cancer (EC) and gastric cancer (GC).MethodsData from the Global Burden of Diseases Study 2019 were analyzed to examine trends in disability-adjusted life-years (DALYs) for three gastrointestinal cancers with estimated annual percentage change (EAPC) and Joinpoint analysis. Inequality in their DALYs rates was assessed with the slope index of inequality and the concentration index, based on the Socio-Demographic Index (SDI).ResultsFrom 1990 to 2019, the age standardized DALYs rate of CRC decreased in these countries from high and high-middle SDI regions, with the EAPC values of − 1.018% and − 0.161%, respectively, but increased among low, low-middle and middle SDI regions (EAPC = 1.035%, 0.926% and 0.406%, respectively). The age standardized DALYs rates of EC and GC decreased in all SDI regions. Moreover, the slope index changed from 358.42 (95% confidence interval 343.28 to 370.49) to 245.13 (217.47 to 271.24) for CRC, from − 63.88 (− 87.48 to − 48.28) to − 1.36 (− 32.44 to 25.87) for EC, and from 126.37 (101.97 to 146.47) to 58.04 (20.54 to 96.12) for GC. The concentration index for CRC moved from 29.56 (28.99 to 29.84) to 23.90 (23.19 to 24.26), from − 9.47 (− 10.30 to − 9.24) to − 14.64 (− 15.35 to − 14.24) for EC, and from 8.44 (7.85 to 8.72) to − 6.42 (− 7.65 to − 6.12) for GC.ConclusionThis study suggests strong heterogeneity in global DALYs for gastrointestinal cancers across different SDI regions. Higher SDI regions faced a greater burden of CRC, while the burdens of EC and GC were more prevalent in lower SDI regions.

Trends and cross-country inequalities in global burns burden among children and adolescents: A population-based study from 1990 to 2021.

Burns among children and adolescents represent a significant global health burden, leading to substantial morbidity and disability. This study aimed to analyze the trends in burn incidence, prevalence, and years lived with disability (YLDs) from 1990 to 2021, and to project future trends to 2035, highlighting global and regional disparities. We utilized data from the Global Burden of Disease (GBD) database covering 204 countries and territories. Burn data were extracted from multiple sources including hospital records, health surveys, and national health databases. Trend analysis was projected using the Bayesian age-period-cohort (BAPC) model. Health inequality was assessed using the slope index of inequality (SII) and the concentration index (CI). In 2021, the global incidence of burns among children and adolescents was 8,484,254 cases, with an age-standardized incidence rate (ASIR) of 1315.94 per 100,000 population, showing an annual reduction of 1.33 % from 1990. The prevalence and YLDs also showed significant annual declines. Males had higher incidence rates than females. Younger children (0-4 years) experienced the highest incidence rates, while adolescents (15-19 years) had the highest prevalence. Regional disparities were evident, with Central Asia and Central Europe having the highest ASIRs. The SII and CI indicated persistent socio-economic health disparities, with lower socio-demographic index (SDI) countries bearing a disproportionate burden. Predictive analysis suggests a continued decline in burn incidence, prevalence, and YLDs through 2035. Additionally, burns among adolescents and young adults result in significant loss of labor force, exacerbating socio-economic challenges in affected regions. The global burden of burns in children and adolescents has decreased significantly, yet substantial disparities persist across different regions and socio-economic strata. Continued efforts in improving burn prevention, treatment, and rehabilitation are essential to further reduce the burden and address health inequalities.

Spatio-temporal distribution and socioeconomic inequality of low birthweight rate in China from 1992 to 2021 and its predictions to 2030.

This paper aims to investigate the trend, spatio-temporal distribution, and socioeconomic inequality of the low birthweight rate (LBWR) in China from 1992 to 2021 and to project the LBWR to 2030. We performed a secondary analysis of data from the China Health Statistics Yearbook. LBWR refers to the ratio of the number of infants born with a birth weight less than 2,500 grams to the number of live births in a given year. We used joinpoint regression models to estimate LBWR trends from 1992 to 2021 for the whole country and from 2002 to 2021 for the three regions (eastern, central, and western regions) and each province. The slope index of inequality (SII) and relative index of inequality (RII) were calculated for each year from 2002 to 2021 based on provincial data. LBWR increased from 2.52% (1992) to 3.70% (2021), and the average annual percentage change (AAPC) (95% confidence interval [CI]) was 1.35% (0.22%, 2.49%) in China. The overall LBWR from 2002 to 2021 was greatest in the Eastern region, but LBWR had the fastest increase in the Western region, with an AAPC (95% CI) of 3.15% (2.59%, 3.12%). There were spatio-temporal differences in the LBWR and trends between provinces. The SII and RII increased linearly from -0.15 and 0.94 to 0.53 (B = 0.035%, p < 0.001) and 1.16 (B = 0.011, p < 0.01), respectively, over the past 20 years. The results of the ARIAM model showed that the National LBWR will be increasedfrom 3.70% in 2021 to 5.28% in 2030. The LBWRs in the eastern, central and western regions in 2030 will be 4.93%, 6.02% and 5.82%, respectively. National and local governments must prioritize disadvantaged groups to mitigate the rapid prevalence of LBWR, reduce regional disparities, and improve perinatal and infant health and health equity in China.

Global trends and risk factors in gastric cancer: a comprehensive analysis of the Global Burden of Disease Study 2021 and multi-omics data.

Background: Gastric cancer (GC) remains a significant global health challenge. This study aimed to comprehensively analyze GC epidemiology and risk factors to inform prevention and intervention strategies. Methods: We analyzed the Global Burden of Disease Study 2021 data, conducted 16 different machine learning (ML) models of NHANES data, performed Mendelian randomization (MR) studies on disease phenotypes, dietary preferences, microbiome, blood-based markers, and integrated differential gene expression and expression quantitative trait loci (eQTL) data from multiple cohorts to identify factors associated with GC risk. Results: Global age-standardized disability-adjusted life year rates (ASDR) for GC declined from 886.24 to 358.42 per 100,000 population between 1990 and 2030, with significant regional disparities. Despite this decline, total disability-adjusted life years show a concerning upward trend from 2015, rising from approximately 22.9 million to a projected 24.3 million by 2030. The slope index of inequality shifted from 87 in 1990 to -184 in 2021, indicating a reversal in GC burden distribution, with higher ASDR now associated with lower socio-demographic index countries. The ML models analysis identified higher levels of clinical characteristics such as phosphorus, calcium, eosinophils percent, and triglycerides, as well as lower levels of iron and monocyte percent, may be associated with an increased risk of GC. MR analyses revealed causal associations between GC risk and disease phenotypes such as Helicobacter pylori infection, chronic gastritis, obesity, depression, and dietary preferences such as dairy and processed meats. Gut microbiome analysis showed associations with microbiome such as Phascolarctobacterium and Ruminococcaceae species. Blood-based markers analysis identified protective and risk effects for cortisol, glutamate, nicotinamide, Natural Killer %lymphocyte, CD4-CD8- T cell Absolute Count, Phosphatidylcholine (16:0_18:1), and Interleukin-1-alpha. Integrated genomic analysis identified 10 genes significantly associated with GC risk, with strong evidence for colocalization in genes such as CCR6 and PILRB. Conclusions: This systematic analysis reveals complex global trends in GC burden and identifies novel clinical, disease phenotypes, dietary preferences, microbial, blood-based, and genetic risk factors. These findings provide potential targets for improved risk stratification, prevention, and intervention strategies to reduce the global burden of GC.

The contribution of childhood adversity to adult socioeconomic gradients in mortality: A Swedish birth cohort analysis.

"Child maltreatment is a leading cause of health inequality" according to a leading WHO report. This statement is often assumed, yet, the size of the contribution of childhood adversity to the adult socioeconomic gradient in mortality remains unknown. Inequalities in mortality have mostly been investigated by taking adult conditions as a starting point. The objective of this study is to quantify how much of the socioeconomic gradient in adult life expectancy is associated with childhood adversity. Drawing on a 1953 birth cohort from Stockholm (n=14210), we compared inequalities in adult mortality within the full cohort to a counterfactual scenario where individuals with a history of childhood adversity (indicated by involvement with child welfare services) experienced the mortality rates of those achieving the same adult socioeconomic position, but with no history of childhood adversity. The socioeconomic gradient across education and income quintiles (attained by age 29) is measured by the slope index of inequality of temporary life expectancy (ages 29-67). The counterfactual scenario attenuated the education gradient by 40 percent for men and 54 percent for women. Similarly, inequalities by income were reduced in the counterfactual scenario by 49 percent for men and 47 percent for women. These results support that childhood adversity is an important determinant of inequalities in mortality. The size of their contribution is equivalent to established behavioural risk factors. Taking a life course approach might provide important policy entry points to mitigate health inequalities.

Prevalence of daily fruit and vegetable intake by socio-economic characteristics, women’s empowerment, and climate zone: an ecological study in Latin American cities

Abstract This cross-sectional ecological study described fruit and vegetable (F&amp;V) intake variability across 144 cities in 8 Latin American countries and by city-level contextual variables. Data sources came from health surveys and census data (Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, El Salvador, Guatemala, Mexico, and Peru). Self-reported frequency of F&amp;V intake was harmonised across surveys. Daily F&amp;V intake was considered as consumption 7 d of the week. Using a mixed-effects model, we estimated age and sex-standardised city prevalences of daily F&amp;V intake. Through Kruskal–Wallis tests, we compared city F&amp;V daily intake prevalence by tertiles of city variables related to women’s empowerment, socio-economics, and climate zones. The median prevalence for daily F&amp;V intake was 55.7% across all cities (22.1% to 85.4%). Compared to the least favourable tertile of city conditions, F&amp;V daily intake prevalence was higher for cities within the most favourable tertile of per capita GDP (median = 65.7% vs. 53.0%), labour force participation (median = 68.7% vs. 49.4%), women achievement-labour force score (median = 63.9% vs. 45.7%), and gender inequality index (median = 58.6% vs. 48.6%). Also, prevalences were higher for temperate climate zones than arid climate zones (median = 65.9% vs. 50.6%). No patterns were found by city level of educational attainment, city size, or population density. This study provides evidence that the prevalence of daily F&amp;V intake varies across Latin American cities and may be favoured by higher socio-economic development, women’s empowerment, and temperate weather. Interventions to improve F&amp;V intake in Latin America should consider the behaviour disparities related to underlying local social, economic, and climate zone characteristics.

The Role of rural employment schemes in bridging regional inequalities in India throughout the early 21st century (2000-2024)

The Role of rural employment schemes in bridging regional inequalities in India throughout the early 21st century (2000-2024)

ANALYZING COLONIAL REMNANTS: A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF INDONESIAN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT (1950–1980)

The Global South has always been a running contributor to the global inequality index, becoming a threat to international stability and sustainability. In most cases, it is found that colonial dependency is one major factor that causes this hindrance in development, leading to inequality. In its journey to independence, Indonesia had undergone a strict economic system under Dutch colonialism, and further transitioned to two different governing systems before its reformation, producing different outcomes of economic policy management and spread of inequality. Thus, this research wishes to understand the differences of economic system governance between the Soekarno and Soeharto era, and whether they possess any remnants of colonial dependency integrated within them. The Dependency Theory is used in this research with the concepts of postcolonialism, development, and inequality embedded into the discussions. The data of this research is gathered through academic literature, utilizing a qualitative approach, and is conducted with a descriptive and historical comparative approach. This research finds that Dutch colonialism contributed a major role in how Indonesia manages its economic strategies and how it impacts its high social and economic inequality. Further stretching to post-independence, it is found that Soekarno's decoupling of Western values translated worse into the economy, compared to Soeharto's Western-centric approaches to trade. The root causes of colonial dependencies and habits affect the outcome of economic habits, and thus contribute to the efficiencies of how Indonesia manages its economy during the period before reformation.

Business Constraints, Information Technology and Income Inequality in Sub-Saharan Africa

The objective of this study is to examine how information and communication technology can be used to moderate the unfavourable effects of doing business constraints on income inequality in 48 sub-Saharan African countries for the period from 2004 to 2019. The Gini coefficient is used as the income inequality indicator, whereas the ICT dynamics employed entail subscriptions to mobile phones and the Internet. Ten indicators of doing business constraints are also employed. From the findings, for the most part, doing business constraints increase income inequality while ICT moderates the positive effect of doing business constraints on income inequality. Thresholds of ICT at which the doing business constraints no longer increase income inequality are provided. At these established ICT penetration thresholds, ICT effectively moderates doing business constraints to reduce income inequality.