Equal Split Research Articles

Do open online projects create social norms?

AbstractWhile most scholars emphasize the role of prosocial motivations of contributors in building open online communities, we show that mere users also adhere to their norms of behaviour to some extent. To this end we designed an original experimentation protocol. With the help of the French Wikimédia Foundation, we questioned a large sample (n = 13,000) of Wikipedia users (whether contributors or not). They were invited, after having expressing their feelings about Wikipédia, to play a Dictator Game. A large proportion of respondents, including those who were merely users, chose an equal split (66% of the sample). This surprising result suggests that they have adhered to a social norm of sharing. Investigating the determinants of this result, we prove that an involvement measured by usage (intensity and variety), as well as by attachment to, and time spent, on Wikipedia, is correlated with the choice of the 50/50 split in the dictator game (DG). Furthermore, the method of instrumental variables gives an indication that adherence to the social norm of sharing may be endogenously determined by involvement in the open online community. Our result highlights the importance of interactions with the institutional and technical frameworks of the community.

Compact UHF Three-Element Sequential Rotation Array Antenna for Satcom Applications

This paper proposes a miniaturized UHF antenna with three sequentially rotated elements operating at 433 MHz for Satcom applications. Like most of its former counterparts, the antenna consists of a main body with three radiation elements driven by a feeding network. To evaluate the matching characteristics of the main body, a united reflection coefficient for the three elements, taking into consideration the coupling between them, is derived. The main body is formed by three sequentially rotationally arranged bent planar inverted-F antenna elements, which helps dramatically reduce the size of the antenna. To drive the main body, a new compact feeding network based on spiral-shaped Wilkinson power divider is also developed, achieving three-way power splitting and 120° phase shifting. It has the merits of compact planar structure, equal power splitting, and high isolation between output ports. In this way, a sequential rotation array antenna with compact size (Ø0.216λ <sub xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">0</sub> ), low cost, easy fabrication, and good performance is realized. A prototype is fabricated and measured, and the results prove the good performance of the proposed design.

Some improvement strategies for the sustainable chickpea development: single or combined application of monosodium phosphate and sodium sulphate with or without gibberellic acid treatment by foliar or seed priming.

An experiment was laid out with a target to enhance the performance of gram by the foliar spray of a minute amount of monosodium phosphate and/or sodium sulphate (P and S each at 2 kg/ha were sprayed in two equal splits, i.e. half at 60 and the remaining half at the 70 DAS alone or in combination with the gibberellic acid (GA3) treatment i.e., spray or soaking or P and S solution at 0.1%) with or without the seed priming of GA3 (10-6M GA3 for 8h) and/ or the GA3 foliar application (10-6M GA3 at 60-70 DAS). Monosodium phosphate and sodium sulphate each at 2 kg/ha were foliage applied in two equal splits, i.e. half at 60 and the remaining half at the 70 DAS alone or in combination with the GA3. Prior to sowing, total seeds were categorised into two groups; one group of seeds was primed in 0.0M GA3 and the other was primed in 10-6M GA3 aqueous solution, each for 8 hours. Total 16 treatments with 10 best combinations of monosodium phosphate and/or sodium sulphate with GA3 are possible viz., FPS, SGA + FP, SGA + FS, SGA + FPS, FGAP, FGAS, FGAPS, SGA + FGAP, SGA + FGAS and SGA + FGAPS. The combined application of monosodium phosphate and sodium sulphate with GA3 stimulated seed yield per plant, total protein and carbohydrate content at 130 DAS, along with other parameters at the 80 and 90 DAS.

Some improvement strategies for the sustainable chickpea development: Single or combined application of monosodium phosphate and sodium sulphate with or without gibberellic acid treatment by foliar or seed priming

An experiment was laid out with a target to enhance the performance of gram by the foliar spray of a minute amount of monosodium phosphate and/or sodium sulphate (P and S each at 2 kg/ha were sprayed in two equal splits, i.e. half at 60 and the remaining half at the 70 DAS alone or in combination with the gibberellic acid (GA3) treatment i.e., spray or soaking or P and S solution at 0.1%) with or without the seed priming of GA3 (10-6M GA3 for 8h) and/ or the GA3 foliar application (10-6M GA3 at 60-70 DAS). Monosodium phosphate and sodium sulphate each at 2 kg/ha were foliage applied in two equal splits, i.e. half at 60 and the remaining half at the 70 DAS alone or in combination with the GA3. Prior to sowing, total seeds were categorised into two groups; one group of seeds was primed in 0.0M GA3 and the other was primed in 10-6M GA3 aqueous solution, each for 8 hours. Total 16 treatments with 10 best combinations of monosodium phosphate and/or sodium sulphate with GA3 are possible viz., FPS, SGA + FP, SGA + FS, SGA + FPS, FGAP, FGAS, FGAPS, SGA + FGAP, SGA + FGAS and SGA + FGAPS. The combined application of monosodium phosphate and sodium sulphate with GA3 stimulated seed yield per plant, total protein and carbohydrate content at 130 DAS, along with other parameters at the 80 and 90 DAS.

Effect of Nitrogen and Phosphorus Levels on Yield, Concentration, Physical and Chemical Properties of Dill Seed Oil

To test the effect of 4 levels of nitrogen (i.e. 0, 45, 90 and 135 Kg N ha-1) as urea (46% N) and 3 levels of phosphorus (i.e. 0, 17.5 and 35 Kg P ha-1) as triple superphosphate (21.8% P) on yield and concentration of dill (Anethum graveolens L. local cultivar) seed oil this experiment was carried out during winter season of 1999 - 2000 at the experimental field of Agriculture College, Abu-Ghraib.&#x0D; Both fertilizers were applied in two equal splits, first at seeds sowing and the second was added one month after emergence. Dried and ground seed samples were subjected to water distillation for extraction of volatile oils&#x0D; Result indicated that fertilization of dill plants with 90 Kg N + 35 Kg P ha-1 produced highest oil yield (32.19ha-1) and concentration (3.60%) with better quality. GLC analysis indicated that dill seed oil contain 27 volatile compounds, 15 were identified and the major constituents were Carvone, Limonene and α-Phellandrene. Nitrogen and phosphorus fertilization increased the concentration of all identified constituents of dill seed oil.&#x0D; Nitrogen and phosphorus fertilization increased yield and concentration of dill seed oil. Moreover, physical properties of the oil were also improved by N and P fertilization. GLC analysis showed that Carvone, Limonene and α-Phellandrene are the major constituents of dill seed oil and could be increased by N and P application .&#x0D; Key words : Volatile compounds, Carvone, Limonene, α-Phellandrene.

Can the agronomic performance of urea equal calcium ammonium nitrate across nitrogen rates in temperate grassland?

AbstractIn temperate grassland, urea has been shown to have lower nitrous oxide emissions compared to ammonium nitrate‐based fertilizer and is less expensive. However, nitrogen (N) loss via ammonia volatilization from urea raises questions regarding yield performance and efficiency. This study compares the yield and N offtake of grass fertilized with urea, calcium ammonium nitrate (CAN) and urea treated with the urease inhibitor N‐(n‐butyl) thiophosphoric triamide (NBPT) at six site‐years. Five annual fertilizer N rates (100–500 kg N/ha) were applied in five equal splits of 20–100 kg N/ha during the growing season. On average, urea produced slightly better yields than CAN in spring (103.5% of CAN yield) and slightly poorer yields in summer (98.4% of CAN yield). There was no significant difference in annual grass yield between urea, CAN and urea + NBPT. Urea had the lowest cost per tonne of DM grass yield produced. However, the urea treatment had lower N offtake than CAN and this difference was more pronounced as the N rate increased. There was no difference in N offtake between urea + NBPT and CAN. While this study shows that urea produced yields comparable to CAN, urea apparent fertilizer N recovery (AFNR) tends to be lower. Urea selection in place of CAN will increase national ammonia emissions which is problematic for countries with targets to reduce ammonia emissions. Promisingly, NBPT allows the agronomic performance of urea to consistently equal CAN across N rates by addressing the ammonia loss limitations of urea.

Anterior insula signals inequalities in a modified Ultimatum Game

Studies employing the Ultimatum Game (UG) which involves two parties (i.e., proposers and responders) splitting some money have suggested the role that anterior insula (AI) plays in detecting fairness norm violation, i.e., violation of the responder’s expectation of receiving equal splits from the proposer. In this study, we explored how AI would respond when there existed simultaneously another expectation of being treated equivalently as others. Participants acted as responders and would be informed about both the offers they received and the average amount of money the same proposer offered to others. Hence we introduced different conditions where participants were treated equivalently or not equivalently as other responders in UG. Participants could decide to accept or reject the offer with acceptance leading to the suggested split and rejection leaving both parties nothing. Behavioral results showed that participants rejected more unfair offers and reacted more slowly during acceptance (vs. rejection) of offers when they were offered less than others. At the neural level, stronger AI activation was observed when participants received unfair relative to fair offers, as well as when they received unequal relative to equal offers. Moreover, dorsomedial prefrontal cortex/dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dmPFC/dACC) exhibited greater activity during receiving unequal (vs. equal) offers and during acceptance (vs. rejection) of offers which were less than others’. Taken together, the present study demonstrated that the treatment of others modulated both behavioral responses to unfairness and neural correlates of the fairness-related decision-making process, and that AI played a general role in detecting norm violations.

Systematic approach to sidelobe reduction in linear antenna arrays through corporate‐feed‐controlled excitation

A systematic approach to sidelobe reduction of broadside linear antenna arrays by design of corporate feeds implementing non-uniform excitation is proposed. The approach comprises of the two major stages. First, candidate excitation sets (corporate feeds) are searched among excitation sets which might energize a particular array aperture. The range of the corporate networks is restricted – based on the implementation and performance considerations – to the ones constructed using only T-junctions with equal power split. The reference for the candidates in terms of the sidelobe level is the uniformly excited and spaced array aperture with the same number of elements. The search is performed over realizable excitations and constrained elements’ spacings using the array factor and the model of excitation amplitudes due to corporate feeding. At the second stage, an excitation providing reduced sidelobes and simple routing is implemented as a microstrip corporate feed within the antenna array model. The entire antenna-feed circuit is adjusted and validated using numerical optimization and discrete electromagnetic simulations at the high-fidelity level of description. The proposed feeds and the approach to their systematic design offer flexibility in design of linear antenna arrays without extra complications and allow substantial sidelobe reduction. A demonstration example is provided.

Repercussion of photosynthetic variables and related enzymes under influence of sodium dihydrogen orthophosphate and sodium sulphatewith two modes of gibberellic acid application

An experiment was carried out to investigate whether the application of gibberellic acid (GA) along with NaH2PO4 and/or Na2SO4 could ameliorate photosynthetic variables and enzymes in chickpea cultivar DCP 92-3 without compromising the nitrogen fixing activity. Before, sowing the seeds of chickpea were soaked for 8 h in 10-6MGA. 60 and 70 days after sowing (DAS), the plants were sprayed with 10-6MGA along with 2 kg P and /or S/ha in two equal splits. Performance of the crop was assessed in terms of chlorophyll content (Chl), net photosynthetic rate (PN), stomatal conductance (gs), carbonic anhydrase activity (CA) and one most significant N-fixing enzyme, NR. Treatment (16) SGA+FGAPS proved best, it enhanced Chl content by 46.16% and 48.84% PN by 64.24 and 65.37%, NR by 22.37% and 22.46% respectively at 90 and 100 DAS. CA at 100 DAS only and gs at both stages of sampling found non-significant. Moreover, CA enhanced by 64.56% at 90 DAS also.

Surveys of Stroke Patients and Their Next of Kin on Their Opinions towards Decision-Making and Consent for Stroke Thrombolysis

Early initiation of stroke thrombolysis is associated with improved outcomes. Procurement of consent is a key factor in prolonging the door-to-needle duration. This study aimed to determine the attitudes and preferences of stroke patients and their next of kin (NOK) towards decision-making for stroke thrombolysis in Singapore. We surveyed acute ischaemic stroke patients (n = 171) who presented beyond the 4.5-hour therapeutic window and their NOK (n = 140) using a questionnaire with scenarios on obtaining consent for intravenous thrombolysis. In the patient survey, 83% were agreeable for their NOK to decide on their behalf if mentally incapacitated and 74% were agreeable for the doctor to decide if the NOK was absent. In the NOK survey, the majority (81%) wanted to be consulted before mentally capacitated patients made their decision; 72% and 74%, meanwhile, were willing to decide on behalf of a mentally capacitated and mentally incapacitated patient, respectively. In the scenario where a doctor recommended a mentally incapacitated stroke patient to undergo thrombolysis but the family declined, there was a near equal split in preference to follow the family's or doctor's decision in both the patient and NOK surveys. The survey found that in the decision-making process for stroke thrombolysis, there was no clear consensus on the preference for the decision maker of the mentally incapacitated patient. In Singapore, there is a strong influence of the NOK in decision-making for thrombolysis.

Humans expect generosity

Mechanisms supporting human ultra-cooperativeness are very much subject to debate. One psychological feature likely to be relevant is the formation of expectations, particularly about receiving cooperative or generous behavior from others. Without such expectations, social life will be seriously impeded and, in turn, expectations leading to satisfactory interactions can become norms and institutionalize cooperation. In this paper, we assess people’s expectations of generosity in a series of controlled experiments using the dictator game. Despite differences in respective roles, involvement in the game, degree of social distance or variation of stakes, the results are conclusive: subjects seldom predict that dictators will behave selfishly (by choosing the Nash equilibrium action, namely giving nothing). The majority of subjects expect that dictators will choose the equal split. This implies that generous behavior is not only observed in the lab, but also expected by subjects. In addition, expectations are accurate, matching closely the donations observed and showing that as a society we have a good grasp of how we interact. Finally, correlation between expectations and actual behavior suggests that expectations can be an important ingredient of generous or cooperative behavior.

50/50 Norm in Massive Online Public Good: The Case of Wikipedia

This paper shows the existence of a strong social norm in a massive online public good community, demonstrated by the choice of the equal split in the Dictator Game (DG). With the help of the French Wikimedia Foundation, we questioned a large sample of Wikipedia users and contributors on their practices, and then asked them to play the DG. The results are statistically significant and show how people respect (or not) social norms. They also show that both contributors and non-contributors adhere to a norm that it is correlated with their “patronage” of Wikipedia. Regular, long-term users, who declare a strong attachment to the platform, are more likely to choose the 50/50 split in the DG. The method of instrumental variables was used to identify a causal relationship between the equal split and involvement in Wikipedia. This did not invalidate the hypothesis that choosing an equal split in the DG is driven by the level of involvement in Wikipedia.

A novel fully planar quad band Wilkinson power divider

In this paper, by using extended composite right and left handed transmission line (E-CRLH-TL), the fully planar quad band Wilkinson power divider (WPD) proposed exhibits the benefits of bandwidth enlargement, excellent isolation and equal power split between output ports in the four pass-bands. The proposed divider is designed and fabricated on a low cost substrate with dielectric constant of 4.4 and a thickness of 0.8mm as work at four arbitrary frequency bands of 2.4GHz (ISM), 3.5GHz (WiMax), 5.2GHz (WiFi) and 5.8GHz (WiFi). The results of the measured and simulated designs are in good agreement with each other which verifies the proposed design methodology. The design concept of this paper can be easily extended to various multi-band microwave devices.

The fully nonlinear stratified geostrophic adjustment problem

Abstract. The study of the adjustment to equilibrium by a stratified fluid in a rotating reference frame is a classical problem in geophysical fluid dynamics. We consider the fully nonlinear, stratified adjustment problem from a numerical point of view. We present results of smoothed dam break simulations based on experiments in the published literature, with a focus on both the wave trains that propagate away from the nascent geostrophic state and the geostrophic state itself. We demonstrate that for Rossby numbers in excess of roughly 2 the wave train cannot be interpreted in terms of linear theory. This wave train consists of a leading solitary-like packet and a trailing tail of dispersive waves. However, it is found that the leading wave packet never completely separates from the trailing tail. Somewhat surprisingly, the inertial oscillations associated with the geostrophic state exhibit evidence of nonlinearity even when the Rossby number falls below 1. We vary the width of the initial disturbance and the rotation rate so as to keep the Rossby number fixed, and find that while the qualitative response remains consistent, the Froude number varies, and these variations are manifested in the form of the emanating wave train. For wider initial disturbances we find clear evidence of a wave train that initially propagates toward the near wall, reflects, and propagates away from the geostrophic state behind the leading wave train. We compare kinetic energy inside and outside of the geostrophic state, finding that for long times a Rossby number of around one-quarter yields an equal split between the two, with lower (higher) Rossby numbers yielding more energy in the geostrophic state (wave train). Finally we compare the energetics of the geostrophic state as the Rossby number varies, finding long-lived inertial oscillations in the majority of the cases and a general agreement with the past literature that employed either hydrostatic, shallow-water equation-based theory or stratified Navier–Stokes equations with a linear stratification.

Effect of split and foliar application of nitrogen on leaf nitrogen concentration, SPAD index and photosynthesis in Bt. Cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.)

A field experiment was carried out at Rahuri (Maharashtra) India in consecutive years of 2011 to 2012 to study the response of split and foliar application of nitrogen on leaf nitrogen concentration, SPAD index and photosynthesis in Bt cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L). Ten treatments comprising nitrogen–management practices (application of recommended dose of nitrogen in 3, 4, 5, 6 splits; foliar application of 20 g KNO3 litre-1 water, 20 g urea litre-1 water, combination of split application of nitrogen and foliar spray of 20 g KNO3 litre-1 water, 20 g urea litre-1 water and control) were tested on inceptisol. Results indicated that application of nitrogen in six splits (20% at sowing as basal and remaining in 5 equal splits at 30, 45, 60, 75 and 90 DAS) registered significantly higher leaf nitrogen content, SPAD index and rate of photosynthesis except 60 DAS where 4 nitrogen split showed higher leaf nitrogen content and SPAD index. Similarly the same treatment registered significantly higher plant height, dry matter accumulation, number of bolls plant-1 and lint yield.SAARC J. Agri., 14(2): 1-11 (2016)

A High-Performance Refractive Index Sensor Based on Fano Resonance in Si Split-Ring Metasurface

We present a high-performance refractive index sensor based on Fano resonance with a figure of merit (FOM) about 56.5 in all-dielectric metasurface which consists of a periodically arranged silicon rings with two equal splits dividing them into pairs of arcs of different lengths. A Fano resonance with quality factor ~133 and spectral contrast ratio ~100% arises from destructive interference of two antiphase electric dipoles in the two arcs of the split-ring. We can turn on and/or off the Fano resonance with a modulation depth nearly 100% at the operating wavelength of 1067 nm by rotating the polarization of incident light. We believe that our results will open up avenues for the development of applications using Fano resonance with dynamically controllability such as biochemical sensors, optical switching, and modulator.

Nutrient Requirement of Papaya (Carica papaya L.) for Yield Optimization and Commercial Cultivation Under Kerala Conditions

Papaya has gained commercial importance over the years because of its varied uses, mainly for table purpose. One of the reasons for low production in papaya is inadequate nourishment. As the export of papaya from India is rapidly increasing, there is a pressing need to enhance its productivity and improve the fruit quality. The present experiment was undertaken to study the response of major plant nutrients viz., nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium on growth, yield and quality of papaya and also to find out the optimum dose of NPK for commercial cultivation of papaya under Kerala conditions. The trial was conducted in confounded factorial randomized block design. Different levels of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium (200, 250 and 300) gram per plant per year were tried in six equal splits. Results revealed that application of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium at the rate of 250: 250: 500g per plant per year in six equal splits, at two months interval was economically viable and improved the growth, yield and quality of papaya.

Weed control efficiency and yield of finger millet [Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn.] influenced due to different establishment techniques, levels and time of application of nitrogen

A field experiment was conducted to study the weed control efficiency and yield of finger millet [Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn.] influenced due to different establishment techniques, levels and time of application of nitrogen. The field experiment was laid out in split-split plot design with 48 treatments and three replications. Total number of 48 treatments consisted of four techniques of establishment as main plot (T1–Recommended transplanting at 20 x 15 cm, T2–Random transplanting, T3–Random broadcasting of 30 days old seedlings (Awatni), T4–Random broadcasting of 20 days old seedlings (Awatni), three nitrogen levels in sub-plot (F1–60 kg N/ha, F2–80 kg N/ha and F3–100 kg N/ha) and four times of nitrogen application as sub-sub plot [S0–Basal (half dose through suphala (15:15:15), S1–2 splits-TP, 30 DAT, S2–3 splits-TP, 30 and 60 DAT and S3–4 splits- TP, 20, 40 and 60 DAT]. Thus, it can be concluded that for obtaining higher grain and straw yield from kharif finger millet under south Konkan region of Maharashtra, the kharif finger millet should be grown by recommended transplanting at 20 x 15 cm techniques of crop establishment along with 100 kg nitrogen per ha by splitting it into three equal splits (at transplanting, 30 and 60 DAT).

Response of Perlka (Calcium cynamide) on Plant Growth and Production of Kinnow Mandarin(C.nobilis XC.deliciosa)in Sub Montane Low Hill Zone of Himachal Pradesh

Perlka, a multifunctional fertilizer was tested in kinnow mandarin as a soil application at four different doses, 500 g, 1000 g, 1500 g and 2000 g per tree and its effect on plant growth and production was compared against the soil application of CAN (800 g and 1600 g/tree). Perlka and CAN were applied during the month of February & May in two equal splits. Effect of Perlka application on annual shoot extension, fruit production and fruit quality was recorded. Annual shoot extension in kinnow mandarin was observed significantly more with the Perlka treatment 1000 g per tree when compared to other Perlka treatment (500 g, 1500 g and 2000 g) and as well as the CAN application. Significant improvement in response to soil application of Perlka (1000 g) when compared to other Perlka treatments including the application of CAN was observed for fruit size, fruit weight and fruit volume. Biochemical analysis of fruits showed variable results for total soluble content of kinnow fruits in response to different treatment. Maximum TSS (10.3° B) was observed with the treatment of 800 g CAN and 2000 g Perlka individually. Maximum fruit yield (32.18 Kg) per tree was obtained with 1000 g Perlka application followed by 1600 g CAN. Perlka application at 1000 g per tree resulted in significant improvement in annual shoot growth and tree health particularly by exhibiting resistance against collar rot and root rot fungi caused by Phtopthora citrophora, Phtopthora nicotiane in all of the trees receiving perlka in comparison to CAN treatments, fruit yield and other fruit quality parameters of the fruits in kinnow mandarin. The highest BC ratio of 3.5 was obtained in trees of kinnow mandarin treated with 1000g of perlka per tree.

Examination of a Captive Bolt Stunner with 3 Different Bolt Lengths on Cattle Brain Damage and Specified Risk Materials Dispersion

ObjectivesCaptive bolt stunning is a standard and effective method of rendering cattle unconscious for slaughter. An unrecoverable penetrating stun is ensured by correct placement of the captive bolt stunner. The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of different bolt lengths on sustained brain damage and presence of specified risk materials (SRM) in blood of Holstein and non-Holstein cattle. It was hypothesized that brain damage and SRM dispersion would not differ based on bolt length or breed type.Materials and MethodsThe study was designed as a randomized unbalanced block design. Test day served as a block and the experimental unit was animal. Data were analyzed with SAS (SAS Inst. Inc., Cary, NC) using a paired t test. Each collection was assigned 1 of 3 lengths; control (CON; 15.2 cm), medium (MED; 16.5 cm), or long (LON; 17.8 cm). All animals sampled were less than 30 mo of age. Blood was randomly sampled immediately following the start of exsanguination from 33 animals per treatment, with an equal split of Holstein and non-Holstein breed type. Blood samples were sent to IEH-Warren Analytical Laboratory (IEH, Greeley, CO) where the Colorado State University fluorescent enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (F-ELISA) was conducted for detection of glial proteins. For brain damage assessment, 292 heads were randomly sampled across 3 collection periods, with an equal split between non-Holstein and Holstein breed type. Heads were collected, chilled, and brought to the Necropsy Laboratory (Colorado State University, Veterinary Teaching Hospital, Fort Collins, CO) for splitting and damage analysis. Skulls were split with a bandsaw through the median plane of the captive bolt penetration tract. Brains were photographed and assessed for damage to the frontal lobe (FL), parietal lobe (PL), occipital lobe (OL), olfactory bulb (OB), hypothalamus (HYP), corpus callosum (CC), fornix (FOR), and the thalamus (THAL). Brain structure disruption was determined with a graphic overlay along the median plane; each structure was recorded as either damaged or non-damaged. Additionally, evidence of double knocking (DK) or skull plate fragments in the brain tissue (BC) were recorded.ResultsThe Colorado State University F-ELISA found that 97% of the CON blood samples were negative, 94% of the MED blood samples were negative, and 100% of the LON blood samples were negative. The level of brain damage did not differ between breed type for any structure measured (P = 0.607). The amount of brain damage was statistically different between CON and LON for FL, OL, and THAL (P = 0.004, P = 0.025, and P = 0.002, respectively). The FL, OL, CC, and THAL differed between MED and LON (P = 0.022, P = 0.043, P = 0.043, and P = 0.002, respectively). Comparisons between CON and MED showed that only FL damage differed (P = 0.033). The percentage of DK and BC in brain tissue did not differ based on treatment or breed type (P = 0.399, P = 0.311). The brainstem was not disrupted for any of the treatments.ConclusionThere was sufficient evidence that differing bolt lengths affect the amount of brain damage to the skull and brain structures. Additionally, there was minimal evidence to support that changes in SRM dispersal occurred due to bolt length. Further work is required to determine how bolt length could affect SRM transmission in older animals.