Epigenomic Modifications Research Articles

Exercise-induced methylation of the Serhl2 promoter and implication for lipid metabolism in rat skeletal muscle.

Environmental factors such as physical activity induce epigenetic modification, with exercise-responsive DNA methylation changes occurring in skeletal muscle. To determine the skeletal muscle DNA methylation signature to endurance swim training we used whole-genome methylated DNA immunoprecipitation (MeDIP) sequencing. Gene set expression analysis (GSEA) of differentially methylated promoter regions (DMRs) an enrichment of four gene sets, including those annotated to lipid metabolic process, with differentially hypermethylated or hypomethylated promoter regions in skeletal muscle of exercise-trained rats. Single base resolution bisulfite sequencing confirmed that neighboring CpGs in the transcription start site of Serhl2 (Serine Hydrolase Like 2) were hypomethylated in exercise-trained rats. Serhl2 gene expression was upregulated in exercise-trained rats, as well as in an exercise-in-a-dish model of L6 myotubes subjected to electrical pulse stimulation (EPS). Serhl2 promoter activity was regulated by methylation, and in response to EPS. We identified a Nr4a binding motif in the Serhl2 promoter region, which upon deletion, reduced Serhl2 promoter activity and abolished sensitivity to methylation in L6 myotubes. Gene silencing of Serhl2 in L6 myotubes reduced both intracellular lipid oxidation and triacylglycerol synthesis in response to EPS. Exercise training promotes intracellular lipid metabolism and phenotypic changes in skeletal muscle through epigenomic modifications on Serine Hydrolase Like 2. Hypomethylation of Serhl2 promoter affects transcription factor binding of Nr4a, Serhl2 promoter activity, and Serhl2 mRNA expression in skeletal muscle. Our data link exercise-induced epigenomic regulation Serhl2 with lipid oxidation and triacylglycerol synthesis in skeletal muscle.

EXPRESSO: a multi-omics database to explore multi-layered 3D genomic organization.

The three-dimensional (3D) organization of the human genome plays a crucial role in gene regulation. EXPloration of Regulatory Epigenome with Spatial and Sequence Observations (EXPRESSO) is a novel multi-omics database for exploration and visualization of multi-layered 3D genomic features across 46 different human tissues. Integrating 1360 3D genomic datasets (Hi-C, HiChIP, ChIA-PET) and 842 1D genomic and transcriptomic datasets (ChIP-seq, ATAC-seq, RNA-seq) from the same biosample, EXPRESSO provides a comprehensive resource for studying the interplay between 3D genome architecture and transcription regulation. This database offers diverse 3D genomic feature types (compartments, contact matrix, contact domains, stripes as diagonal lines extending from a genomic locus in contact matrix, chromatin loops, etc.) and user-friendly interface for both data exploration and download. Other key features include REpresentational State Transfer application programming interfaces for programmatic access, advanced visualization tools for 3D genomic features and web-based applications that correlate 3D genomic features with gene expression and epigenomic modifications. By providing extensive datasets and tools, EXPRESSO aims to deepen our understanding of 3D genomic architecture and its implications for human health and disease, serving as a vital resource for the research community. EXPRESSO is freely available at https://expresso.sustech.edu.cn.

Intestinal Barrier Impairment, Preservation, and Repair: An Update.

Our objective was to review published studies of the intestinal barrier and permeability, the deleterious effects of dietary components (particularly fat), the impact of altered intestinal permeability in disease models and human diseases, the role of the microbiome and epigenomics in control of barrier function, and the opportunities to restore normal barrier function with dietary interventions and products of the microbiota. We conducted a literature review including the following keywords alone or in combination: intestinal barrier, permeability, microbiome, epigenomics, diet, irritable bowel syndrome, inflammatory bowel disease, probiotics. Intestinal permeability is modified by a diet including fat, which increases permeability, and nutrients such as fiber, glutamine, zinc, vitamin D, polyphenols, emulsifiers, and anthocyanins, which decrease permeability. There is significant interaction of the microbiome and barrier function, including the inflammatory of luminal/bacterial antigens, and anti-inflammatory effects of commensals or probiotics and their products, including short-chain fatty acids. Epigenomic modification of barrier functions are best illustrated by effects on junction proteins or inflammation. Detailed documentation of the protective effects of diet, probiotics, prebiotics, and microbiota is provided. intestinal permeability is a critical factor in protection against gastrointestinal diseases and is impacted by nutrients that preserve or heal and repair the barrier and nurture anti-inflammatory effects.

Exploring the Relationship Between Gene Expression and Low-Frequency Somatic Mutations in Arabidopsis with Duplex Sequencing.

Intragenomic mutation rates can vary dramatically due to transcription-associated mutagenesis or transcription-coupled repair, which vary based on local epigenomic modifications that are nonuniformly distributed across genomes. One feature associated with decreased mutation is higher expression level, which depends on environmental cues. To understand the magnitude of expression-dependent mutation rate variation, we perturbed expression through a heat treatment in Arabidopsis thaliana. We quantified gene expression to identify differentially expressed genes, which we then targeted for mutation detection using duplex sequencing. This approach provided a highly accurate measurement of the frequency of rare somatic mutations in vegetative plant tissues, which has been a recent source of uncertainty. Somatic mutations in plants may be useful for understanding drivers of DNA damage and repair in the germline since plants experience late germline segregation and both somatic and germline cells share common repair machinery. We included mutant lines lacking mismatch repair (MMR) and base excision repair (BER) capabilities to understand how repair mechanisms may drive biased mutation accumulation. We found wild-type (WT) and BER mutant mutation frequencies to be very low (mean variant frequency 1.8 × 10-8 and 2.6 × 10-8, respectively), while MMR mutant frequencies were significantly elevated (1.13 × 10-6). Interestingly, in the MMR mutant lines, there was no difference in the somatic mutation frequencies between temperature treatments or between highly versus lowly expressed genes. The extremely low somatic variant frequencies in WT plants indicate that larger datasets will be needed to address fundamental evolutionary questions about whether environmental change leads to gene-specific changes in mutation rate.

Emerging CRISPR Therapies for Precision Gene Editing and Modulation in the Cardiovascular Clinic.

Outline the growing suite of novel genome editing tools powered by CRISPR-Cas9 technology that are rapidly advancing towards the clinic for the treatment of cardiovascular disorders. A diversity of new genome editors and modulators are being developed for therapies across myriad human diseases. Recent breakthroughs have improved the efficacy, safety, specificity, and delivery of CRISPR-mediated therapies that could impact heart disease in the next decade, though several challenges remain. Many iterations of the original CRISPR system have been developed seeking to leverage its vast therapeutic potential. As examples, nuclease-free editing, precision single-nucleotide editing, gene expression regulation, and epigenomic modifications are now feasible with the current CRISPR-mediated suite of enzymes. These emerging tools will be indispensable for the development of novel cardiovascular therapeutics as demonstrated by recent successes in both basic research laboratories and pre-clinical models. Here, we provide an overview of current and emerging CRISPR-mediated technologies as they pertain to the cardiovascular system, highlighting successful implementations and future challenges.

PRDM3/16 regulate chromatin accessibility required for NKX2-1 mediated alveolar epithelial differentiation and function

While the critical role of NKX2-1 and its transcriptional targets in lung morphogenesis and pulmonary epithelial cell differentiation is increasingly known, mechanisms by which chromatin accessibility alters the epigenetic landscape and how NKX2-1 interacts with other co-activators required for alveolar epithelial cell differentiation and function are not well understood. Combined deletion of the histone methyl transferases Prdm3 and Prdm16 in early lung endoderm causes perinatal lethality due to respiratory failure from loss of AT2 cells and the accumulation of partially differentiated AT1 cells. Combination of single-cell RNA-seq, bulk ATAC-seq, and CUT&RUN data demonstrate that PRDM3 and PRDM16 regulate chromatin accessibility at NKX2-1 transcriptional targets critical for perinatal AT2 cell differentiation and surfactant homeostasis. Lineage specific deletion of PRDM3/16 in AT2 cells leads to lineage infidelity, with PRDM3/16 null cells acquiring partial AT1 fate. Together, these data demonstrate that NKX2-1-dependent regulation of alveolar epithelial cell differentiation is mediated by epigenomic modulation via PRDM3/16.

Epigenome Reprogramming Through H3K27 and H3K4 Trimethylation as a Resistance Mechanism to DNA Methylation Inhibition in BRAFV600E-Mutated Colorectal Cancer.

BRAFV600E-mutated colorectal cancer exhibits a strong correlation with DNA hypermethylation, suggesting that this subgroup of tumors presents unique epigenomic phenotypes. Nonetheless, 5-azacitidine, which inhibits DNA methyltransferase activity, is not efficacious in BRAFV600E colorectal cancer in vivo. We randomized and treated mice implanted with patient-derived tumor xenografts harboring BRAFV600E mutation with control, 5-azacitidine, vemurafenib (BRAF inhibitor), or the combination. Comprehensive epigenomic profiling was conducted on control and 5-azacitidine-treated tumor samples, including DNA methylation, histone modifications, chromatin accessibility, and gene expression. Combinations of epigenetic agents were explored in preclinical BRAFV600E colorectal cancer models. A profound reduction of DNA methylation levels upon 5-azacitidine treatment was confirmed, however, transcriptional repression was not relieved. This study unbiasedly explored the adaptive engagement of other epigenomic modifications upon 5-azacitidine treatment. A loss of histone acetylation and a gain of histone methylations, including H3K27 and H3K4 trimethylation, were observed around these hypomethylated regions, suggesting the involvement of polycomb repressive complex (PRC) activity around the genome with loss of DNA methylation, therefore maintaining the repression of key tumor-suppressor genes. Combined inhibition of PRC activity through EZH2 inhibition with 5-azacitidine treatment additively improved efficacies in BRAFV600E colorectal cancer cells. In conclusion, DNA hypomethylation by 5-azacitidine exhibits a close association with H3K27me3 and PRC activity in BRAFV600E colorectal cancer, and simultaneous blockade of DNA methyltransferase and EZH2 holds promise as a potential therapeutic strategy for patients with BRAFV600E-mutated colorectal cancer.

Progress in toxicogenomics to protect human health.

Toxicogenomics measures molecular features, such as transcripts, proteins, metabolites and epigenomic modifications, to understand and predict the toxicological effects of environmental and pharmaceutical exposures. Transcriptomics has become an integral tool in contemporary toxicology research owing to innovations in gene expression profiling that can provide mechanistic and quantitative information at scale. These data can be used to predict toxicological hazards through the use of transcriptomic biomarkers, network inference analyses, pattern-matching approaches and artificial intelligence. Furthermore, emerging approaches, such as high-throughput dose-response modelling, can leverage toxicogenomic data for human health protection even in the absence of predicting specific hazards. Finally, single-cell transcriptomics and multi-omics provide detailed insights into toxicological mechanisms. Here, we review the progress since the inception of toxicogenomics in applying transcriptomics towards toxicology testing and highlight advances that are transforming risk assessment.

Nutritional Epigenomics: Bioactive Dietary Compounds in the Epigenetic Regulation of Osteoarthritis.

Nutritional epigenomics is exceptionally important because it describes the complex interactions among food compounds and epigenome modifications. Phytonutrients or bioactive compounds, which are secondary metabolites of plants, can protect against osteoarthritis by suppressing the expression of inflammatory and catabolic mediators, modulating epigenetic changes in DNA methylation, and the histone or chromatin remodelling of key inflammatory genes and noncoding RNAs. The combination of natural epigenetic modulators is crucial because of their additive and synergistic effects, safety and therapeutic efficacy, and lower adverse effects than conventional pharmacology in the treatment of osteoarthritis. In this review, we have summarized the chondroprotective properties of bioactive compounds used for the management, treatment, or prevention of osteoarthritis in both human and animal studies. However, further research is needed into bioactive compounds used as epigenetic modulators in osteoarthritis, in order to determine their potential value for future clinical applications in osteoarthritic patients as well as their relation with the genomic and nutritional environment, in order to personalize food and nutrition together with disease prevention.

A Study of Small Intestinal Epigenomic Changes Induced by Royal Jelly.

This study explores the impact of royal jelly (RJ) on small intestinal epigenomic changes. RJ, produced by honeybees, is known for its effects on metabolic diseases. The hypothesis is that RJ induces epigenomic modifications in small intestinal epithelial cells, affecting gene expression and contributing to metabolic health. Male db/m and db/db mice were used to examine RJ's effects through mRNA sequencing and CUT&Tag methods. This study focused on histone modifications and gene expression changes, with statistical significance set at p < 0.05. RJ administration improved insulin sensitivity and lipid metabolism without affecting body weight. GO and KEGG pathway analyses showed significant enrichment in metabolic processes, cellular components, and molecular functions. RJ altered histone modifications, increasing H3K27me3 and decreasing H3K23Ac in genes associated with the G2M checkpoint. These genes, including Smc2, Mcm3, Ccnd1, Rasal2, Mcm6, and Mad2l1, are linked to cancer progression and metabolic regulation. RJ induces beneficial epigenomic changes in small intestinal epithelial cells, improving metabolic health and reducing cancer-associated gene expression. These findings highlight RJ's potential as a therapeutic agent for metabolic disorders. Further research is needed to fully understand the mechanisms behind these effects and their implications for human health.

The pathogenesis of gout: molecular insights from genetic, epigenomic and transcriptomic studies.

The pathogenesis of gout involves a series of steps beginning with hyperuricaemia, followed by the deposition ofmonosodium urate crystal in articular structures and culminating in an innate immune response, mediated by the NLRP3 inflammasome, to the deposited crystals. Large genome-wide association studies (GWAS) of serum urate levels initially identified the genetic variants with thestrongest effects, mapping mainlyto genes that encode urate transporters in the kidney and gut. Other GWAS highlighted the importance of uncommon genetic variants. More recently, genetic and epigenetic genome-wide studies have revealed new pathways in the inflammatory process of gout, including genetic associations with epigenomic modifiers. Epigenome-wide association studies are also implicating epigenomic remodelling in gout, which perhaps regulates the responsiveness of the innate immune system to monosodium urate crystals. Notably, genes implicated in gout GWAS do not include those encodingcomponents of the NLRP3 inflammasome itself, but instead include genes encoding moleculesinvolved in its regulation. Knowledge of the molecular mechanisms underlying gout has advanced through the translation of genetic associations into specific molecular mechanisms. Notable examples include ABCG2, HNF4A, PDZK1, MAF and IL37. Current genetic studies are dominated by participants of European ancestry; however, studies focusing on other population groups are discovering informative population-specific variants associated with gout.

Pan-cancer transcriptome analysis reveals widespread regulation through alternative tandem transcription initiation.

Abnormal transcription initiation from alternative first exon has been reported to promote tumorigenesis. However, the prevalence and impact of gene expression regulation mediated by alternative tandem transcription initiation were mostly unknown in cancer. Here, we developed a robust computational method to analyze alternative tandem transcription start site (TSS) usage from standard RNA sequencing data. Applying this method to pan-cancer RNA sequencing datasets, we observed widespread dysregulation of tandem TSS usage in tumors, many of which were independent of changes in overall expression level or alternative first exon usage. We showed that the dynamics of tandem TSS usage was associated with epigenomic modulation. We found that significant 5' untranslated region shortening of gene TIMM13 contributed to increased protein production, and up-regulation of TIMM13 by CRISPR-mediated transcriptional activation promoted proliferation and migration of lung cancer cells. Our findings suggest that dysregulated tandem TSS usage represents an addtional layer of cancer-associated transcriptome alterations.

Crosstalk between epitranscriptomic and epigenomic modifications and its implication in human diseases

Crosstalk between N6-methyladenosine (m6A) and epigenomes is crucial for gene regulation, but its regulatory directionality and disease significance remain unclear. Here, we utilize quantitative trait loci (QTLs) as genetic instruments to delineate directional maps of crosstalk between m6A and two epigenomic traits, DNA methylation (DNAme) and H3K27ac. We identify 47 m6A-to-H3K27ac and 4,733 m6A-to-DNAme and, in the reverse direction, 106 H3K27ac-to-m6A and 61,775 DNAme-to-m6A regulatory loci, with differential genomic location preference observed for different regulatory directions. Integrating these maps with complex diseases, we prioritize 20 genome-wide association study (GWAS) loci for neuroticism, depression, and narcolepsy in brain; 1,767 variants for asthma and expiratory flow traits in lung; and 249 for coronary artery disease, blood pressure, and pulse rate in muscle. This study establishes disease regulatory paths, such as rs3768410-DNAme-m6A-asthma and rs56104944-m6A-DNAme-hypertension, uncovering locus-specific crosstalk between m6A and epigenomic layers and offering insights into regulatory circuits underlying human diseases.

The Role of N6-methyladenosine Modification in Gametogenesis and Embryogenesis: Impact on Fertility.

The most common epigenetic modification of messenger RNAs (mRNAs) is N6-methyladenosine (m6A), which is mainly located near the 3' untranslated region of mRNAs, near the stop codons, and within internal exons. The biological effect of m6A is dynamically modulated by methyltransferases (writers), demethylases (erasers), and m6A-binding proteins (readers). By controlling post-transcriptional gene expression, m6A has a significant impact on numerous biological functions, including RNA transcription, translation, splicing, transport, and degradation. Hence, m6A influences various physiological and pathological processes, such as spermatogenesis, oogenesis, embryogenesis, placental function, and human reproductive system diseases. During gametogenesis and embryogenesis, genetic material undergoes significant changes, including epigenomic modifications such as m6A. From spermatogenesis and oogenesis to the formation of an oosperm and early embryogenesis, m6A changes occur at every step. m6A abnormalities can lead to gamete abnormalities, developmental delays, impaired fertilization, and maternal-to-zygotic transition blockage. Both mice and humans with abnormal m6A modifications exhibit impaired fertility. In this review, we discuss the dynamic biological effects of m6A and its regulators on gamete and embryonic development and review the possible mechanisms of infertility caused by m6A changes. We also discuss the drugs currently used to manipulate m6A and provide prospects for the prevention and treatment of infertility at the epigenetic level.

Vaginal microbes alter epithelial transcriptome and induce epigenomic modifications providing insight into mechanisms for susceptibility to adverse reproductive outcomes.

The cervicovaginal microbiome is highly associated with women's health, with microbial communities dominated by Lactobacillus species considered optimal. Conversely, a lack of lactobacilli and a high abundance of strict and facultative anaerobes, including Gardnerella vaginalis, have been associated with adverse reproductive outcomes. However, how host-microbial interactions alter specific molecular pathways and impact cervical and vaginal epithelial function remains unclear. Using RNA-sequencing, we characterized the in vitro cervicovaginal epithelial transcriptional response to different vaginal bacteria and their culture supernatants. We showed that G. vaginalis upregulates genes associated with an activated innate immune response. Unexpectedly, G. vaginalis specifically induced inflammasome pathways through activation of NLRP3-mediated increases in caspase-1, IL-1β and cell death, while live L. crispatus had minimal transcriptomic changes on epithelial cells. L. crispatus culture supernatants resulted in a shift in the epigenomic landscape of cervical epithelial cells that was confirmed by ATAC-sequencing showing reduced chromatin accessibility. This study reveals new insights into host-microbe interactions in the lower reproductive tract and suggests potential therapeutic strategies leveraging the vaginal microbiome to improve reproductive health.

Comprehensive analysis of plasma methylome reveals distinct patterns of methylation changes between responders and non-responders to neoadjuvant chemotherapy in breast cancer

The potential of cell-free DNA (cfDNA) methylation profiling in oncology is increasingly recognized for its ability to offer a comprehensive assessment of tumor biology. In this report, we explore the plasma methylome dynamics in patients with early breast cancer (BC) undergoing neoadjuvant chemotherapy (NACT) using an agnostic genome-wide approach with cell-free DNA immunoprecipitation and sequencing (cfMeDIP-seq). Our cohort comprised seven women with triple-positive BC, assessed for cfDNA methylation changes at multiple time points during their treatment course. Genome-wide analysis revealed distinctive patterns of differential methylation in patients achieving pathological complete response (pCR), with no significant epigenomic modifications in patients with residual disease (RD). Gene set enrichment analysis highlighted dynamic variations in functional pathways associated with therapy response, including metabolism, immune response, and response to xenobiotics, with a notable reversibility post-treatment. Principal component analysis of the differentially methylated regions demonstrated a clear distinction between pCR and RD patients, indicating the potential of cfMeDIP-seq for the non-invasive assessment of therapy response. Such findings suggest that cfMeDIP-seq could complement ctDNA offering broader insights into the global modifications induced by chemotherapy. Although future research is needed to validate and expand on our findings, we offer a proof-of-principle of the potential utility of cfMeDIP-seq in the personalized management of BC.

Genome wide inherited modifications of the tomato epigenome by trans-activated bacterial CG methyltransferase

BackgroundEpigenetic variation is mediated by epigenetic marks such as DNA methylation occurring in all cytosine contexts in plants. CG methylation plays a critical role in silencing transposable elements and regulating gene expression. The establishment of CG methylation occurs via the RNA-directed DNA methylation pathway and CG methylation maintenance relies on METHYLTRANSFERASE1, the homologue of the mammalian DNMT1.PurposeHere, we examined the capacity to stably alter the tomato genome methylome by a bacterial CG-specific M.SssI methyltransferase expressed through the LhG4/pOP transactivation system.ResultsMethylome analysis of M.SssI expressing plants revealed that their euchromatic genome regions are specifically hypermethylated in the CG context, and so are most of their genes. However, changes in gene expression were observed only with a set of genes exhibiting a greater susceptibility to CG hypermethylation near their transcription start site. Unlike gene rich genomic regions, our analysis revealed that heterochromatic regions are slightly hypomethylated at CGs only. Notably, some M.SssI-induced hypermethylation persisted even without the methylase or transgenes, indicating inheritable epigenetic modification.ConclusionCollectively our findings suggest that heterologous expression of M.SssI can create new inherited epigenetic variations and changes in the methylation profiles on a genome wide scale. This open avenues for the conception of epigenetic recombinant inbred line populations with the potential to unveil agriculturally valuable tomato epialleles.

PIF transcription factors-versatile plant epigenome landscapers

Plants are exquisitely responsive to their local light and temperature environment utilizing these environmental cues to modulate their developmental pathways and adjust growth patterns. This responsiveness is primarily achieved by the intricate interplay between the photoreceptor phyB (phytochrome B) and PIF (PHYTOCHROME INTERACTING FACTORs) transcription factors (TFs), forming a pivotal signaling nexus. phyB and PIFs co-associate in photobodies (PBs) and depending on environmental conditions, PIFs can dissociate from PBs to orchestrate gene expression. Until recently, the mechanisms governing epigenome modifications subsequent to PIF binding to target genes remained elusive. This mini review sheds light on the emerging role of PIFs in mediating epigenome reprogramming by recruiting chromatin regulators (CRs). The formation of numerous different PIF-CR complexes enables precise temporal and spatial control over the gene regulatory networks (GRNs) governing plant-environment interactions. We refer to PIFs as epigenome landscapers, as while they do not directly reprogram the epigenome, they act as critical sequence-specific recruitment platforms for CRs. Intriguingly, in the absence of PIFs, the efficacy of epigenome reprogramming is largely compromised in light and temperature-controlled processes. We have thoroughly examined the composition and function of known PIF-CR complexes and will explore also unanswered questions regarding the precise of locations PIF-mediated epigenome reprogramming within genes, nuclei, and plants.

Kernel-based testing for single-cell differential analysis

Single-cell technologies offer insights into molecular feature distributions, but comparing them poses challenges. We propose a kernel-testing framework for non-linear cell-wise distribution comparison, analyzing gene expression and epigenomic modifications. Our method allows feature-wise and global transcriptome/epigenome comparisons, revealing cell population heterogeneities. Using a classifier based on embedding variability, we identify transitions in cell states, overcoming limitations of traditional single-cell analysis. Applied to single-cell ChIP-Seq data, our approach identifies untreated breast cancer cells with an epigenomic profile resembling persister cells. This demonstrates the effectiveness of kernel testing in uncovering subtle population variations that might be missed by other methods.

PHF2 regulates sarcomeric gene transcription in myogenesis.

Myogenesis is regulated mainly by transcription factors known as Myogenic Regulatory Factors (MRFs), and the transcription is affected by epigenetic modifications. However, the epigenetic regulation of myogenesis is poorly understood. Here, we focused on the epigenomic modification enzyme, PHF2, which demethylates histone 3 lysine 9 dimethyl (H3K9me2) during myogenesis. Phf2 mRNA was expressed during myogenesis, and PHF2 was localized in the nuclei of myoblasts and myotubes. We generated Phf2 knockout C2C12 myoblasts using the CRISPR/Cas9 system and analyzed global transcriptional changes via RNA-sequencing. Phf2 knockout (KO) cells 2 d post differentiation were subjected to RNA sequencing. Gene ontology (GO) analysis revealed that Phf2 KO impaired the expression of the genes related to skeletal muscle fiber formation and muscle cell development. The expression levels of sarcomeric genes such as Myhs and Mybpc2 were severely reduced in Phf2 KO cells at 7 d post differentiation, and H3K9me2 modification of Mybpc2, Mef2c and Myh7 was increased in Phf2 KO cells at 4 d post differentiation. These findings suggest that PHF2 regulates sarcomeric gene expression via epigenetic modification.