Epigeal Part Research Articles

Trace element translocation patterns in the epigeous parts of 15 common Canadian urban plant species grown in a contaminated soil

Green initiatives and phytotechnologies, such as phytoremediation, hold great potential for the sustainable management of contaminated brownfields. One impediment to these initiatives is the lack of alternatives for the produced biomass due to the potential contamination of plants by trace elements. We conducted an experiment to quantify the accumulation and the translocation patterns of trace elements in the aboveground parts of fifteen desirable plants species used for these kinds of initiatives, i.e. urban predominance, ecological relevance, edibility, commercial prospective, and phytoremediation potential. The experiment was set-up in a tunnel-type greenhouse in which plants were grown in pots filled with contaminated urban soil containing Cu, Zn, Se, Ag and spiked with Cd. Our results indicated that different species exhibited differential abilities to accumulate and translocate trace elements in their aboveground biomass and furthermore, exhibited different bioconcentration factors. A clear exclusion of Cd allocation was observed in fruits and flowers. However, Cd content in edible parts was still above the standard recommendations for human consumption. Our results suggest potential candidates for phytoremediation by revealing different accumulation patterns, also highlighting the importance of characterizing trace elements in the soil for selecting the appropriate plant species based on project’s needs.

The fate of bacteria in urban wastewater-irrigated peach tree: a seasonal evaluation from soil to canopy

Irrigation with wastewater can be a solution to preserve and mitigate freshwater demand, in particular during drought periods. Unfortunately, wastewater, although being treated at different levels, could be a carrier of human pathogens (e.g., E. coli) and potentially contaminate crops for human consumptions.This study investigated the seasonal microbiological concentrations, on soil, shoot and fruit tissues of potted peach trees, following two irrigation treatments: freshwater (FW) and secondary urban wastewater without the final disinfection treatment (SW).E. coli was only detected in SW irrigated soil, whereas total coliforms (TC) and total bacteria counts (TBC) were similar in both treatments throughout the season. Endophytic E. coli, Salmonella spp. and TC were not detected in shoot and fruit, but a higher presence of total bacteria (TBC) was observed in SW-irrigated tree compared to FW-irrigated tree. In particular, SW shoots had a higher load compared to fruits, thus showing a potential effect of leaf transpiration, that promoted the transfer of water-borne bacteria from soil to the epigeal part (shoot). The adoption of low-quality SW (even above the microbiological limits of the European Regulation 2020/741 for wastewater re-use in agriculture), when a drip irrigation method is applied, could be a valid alternative to save fresh water without compromising fruit safety.

Pathogen Growth Inhibition in Ocimum Basilicum (L.), Malus Domestica (Borkh.), and Citrus Limon (L.) by Low-Dose UV-C LED Exposure

In order to stimulate hormesis in basil, apple and lemon we used Ultraviolet C-band (UV-C) radiation emitted by an array of Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs) at low irradiation doses followed by inoculation of the pathogens Botrytis cinerea and Penicillium digitatum. The LEDs are preferable to conventional mercury lamps when robustness and portability are required. Hormetic doses lower than those reported in the literature were used, in order to achieve short irradiation times and thus rapid treatment of crops. The results show that a dose of just 0.3 kJ m-2 released in a time interval of 3 to 14 seconds generates metabolites that inhibit, or dramatically slow, pathogen growth. After 75 days from irradiation immediately followed by inoculation, the fungal development on basil plants affected less than 30% of the epigeal part, compared to 90% in the unirradiated control. In addition, we obtained preliminary results of low-dose hormetic irradiation of lemons and apples. No fungal growth was observed in 75% of irradiated apples 15 days after irradiation and inoculation. Irradiated lemons showed complete inhibition of P. Digitatum growth. One can then infer that preventive irradiation by LED is beneficial to limit crop diseases in both pre-harvest and post-harvest without harming the plant or the environment, as a sustainable alternative to pesticides.

Phytochemical Profile of Foeniculum vulgare Subsp. piperitum Essential Oils and Evaluation of Acaricidal Efficacy against Varroa destructor in Apis mellifera by In Vitro and Semi-Field Fumigation Tests.

Varroatosis is an important parasitic disease of Apis mellifera caused by the mite Varroa destructor (V. destructor). The parasite is able to transmit numerous pathogens to honeybees which can lead to colony collapse. In recent years, the effectiveness of authorized drug products has decreased due to increasing resistance phenomena. Therefore, the search for alternatives to commercially available drugs is mandatory. In this context, essential oils (EOs) prove to be a promising choice to be studied for their known acaricide properties. In this research work, the acaricide activity of EO vapours isolated from the epigeal part (whole plant) of fennel (Foeniculum vulgare sbps. piperitum) and its three fractions (leaves, achenes and flowers) against V. destructor was evaluated. The effectiveness of fumigation was studied using two methods. The first involved prolonged exposure of mites to oil vapour for variable times. After exposure, the five mites in each replicate were placed in a Petri dish with an Apis mellifera larva. Mortality, due to chronic toxicity phenomena, was assessed after 48 h. The second method aimed to translate the results obtained from the in vitro test into a semi-field experiment. Therefore, two-level cages were set up. In the lower compartment of the cage, a material releasing oil vapours was placed; in the upper compartment, Varroa-infested honeybees were set. The results of the first method showed that the increase in mortality was directly proportional to exposure time and concentration. The whole plant returned 68% mortality at the highest concentration (2 mg/mL) and highest exposure time (48 h control), while the leaves, achenes and flowers returned 64%, 52% and 56% mortality, respectively. In the semi-field experiment, a concentration up to 20 times higher than the one used in the in vitro study was required for the whole plant to achieve a similar mite drop of >50%. The results of the study show that in vitro tests should only be used for preliminary screening of EO activity. In vitro tests should be followed by semi-field tests, which are essential to identify the threshold of toxicity to bees and the effective dose to be used in field studies.

A New Strategy to Improve Vineyard Resilience: Grapevine Morphological Adaptation to Short-Term Nitrogen Deficiency

Nitrogen (N) deficiency causes a morphological disequilibrium between shoots and roots, favoring hypogeal growth. Our hypothesis is that short-term nitrogen deficiency could induce an increase in vine resilience, inducing root growth before the appearance of significant dysfunctions in the epigeal part of the plant. Then, nitrogen availability could be promptly restored through a well-thought-out fertilization plan. In this experiment, two table grape cultivars grafted onto three different rootstocks were studied in three hydroponic growing conditions characterized by different nitrogen availability. After 53 days of treatment, plant morphologies were described, and leaf photosynthetic pigments were quantified. The short-term nitrogen deficiency induced root growth, leading to significantly different proportions among the hypogeal and the epigeal parts, despite no significant differences were recorded concerning shoot growth. Some small differences in the leaf pigmentations indicated an incipient symptom of nitrogen deficiency, and significant differences in the phytomer morphology indicated the possibility of developing low-cost indices for prompt identification of incipient symptoms. This will allow the exploitation of the advantages of short-term nitrogen deficiency while avoiding negative effects on shoot growth by promptly restoring the nitrogen availability.

Iris ensata Thunb: Review on Its Chemistry, Morphology, Ethno Medical Uses, Phytochemistry and Pharmacological Activities

Medicinal plants are mainly used as herbal medicine and play an essential role in primary health care, ethno-medicine system and production of appropriate drugs. Due to this multi-usage, trade network demand for the different medicinal species can extend to national as well as international boundaries. As only little studies are done on this plant, the purpose of current review is to make accessible up-to-date information on, botany, morphology, ecological biodiversity, therapeutic uses, phytochemistry and pharmacological activities on diverse parts of Iris ensata Thunb. The plant Iris ensata Thunb belongs to the family Iridaceae. It has been praised by the physicians of all times as a panacea and is broadly used in a huge number of disases. It heals up the chronic ulcers and absess, useful in insect bite, burns, vitiligo, weakness of muscles, itching and dandruff. It is emmenagogue, anti-inflammatory, anti orchitis, used in cold cough, in all humours, pneumonia, dyspnoea. The egesta accumulated in the chest are attenuated and resolved by Irsa, it is emetic and purgative. Ibne Sina recommends its efficacious actions in strengthening the wisdom and intellect, cures head injuries skull bone fractures, phlegmic and hot swelling. Ibne Baitar quoted that it is useful in tooth ache, dyspnoea, spleenomegaly, rigidity of uterus, flatulence, it is abortifacient, anti tussive. The fermentation with sosan is benifecial in endometritis, adenitis and hard swelling. Its efficacy in dyspnoea, asthma, thorasic pain, hydropes, jaundice, haemorrhoids, liver complaints, and sciatica. Root of Iris ensata Thunb are reach source of glycosides steroids, resins, proteins, phenolic compounds and also tannins. Flowers of this plant also contains anthocyanin 5-0-glucosyltransferase (R2) and anthocyanin-flavone e.g. malvidine 3KGaC5G, petunidine 3KGac5c, delphinidine 3RGac5G, petunidine(R2) . The epigeal parts of this plant contain mangiferin(R) and leteolin C-glycosides. This review highlights the traditional, ethnobotanical, phytochemical, pharmacological information available on Iris ensata, which might be helpful for scientists and researchers to find out new chemical entities responsible for its claimed traditional uses. Keywords: Iris ensata Thunb, Phytochemistry, Pharmacological activity, Ayurveda, Medicinal uses

Risk management options to contrast the introduction of citrus fruit bacterial canker through ornamental Rutaceae in the Mediterranean Basin: An Italian case study

Citrus bacterial canker (CBC) is a known disease caused by Xanthomonas citri subsp citri, which affects many species and varieties of Rutaceae. It causes evident damage on the epigeal parts of plant (leaves and branches) and, in particular, on the fruits, causing their fall and/or deterioration, making them unsuitable for sale. EPPO has signaled its presence in many Asian countries and in the Middle East, in South and Central America and in some regions of the African continent, but not yet in Europe. There are several possible ways of introducing this pathogen into the Mediterranean Basin and, among these, there is the trade of plant material for propagation and planting and the flow of tourism between the risk areas and the Mediterranean countries. This research demonstrates how the risk of invasion through ornamental Rutaceae is evident and identifies - in a participatory way through the involvement of stakeholders - some possible tools of phytosanitary protection. The methodological approach, with multi-criteria analysis, recognizes the interest in forms of protection represented by voluntary certification tools, rather than the introduction of new taxation that can finance the protection system.

Treated wastewater as irrigation source: a microbiological and chemical evaluation in apple and nectarine trees

The use of secondary treated wastewater (STW) for irrigation is considered as a strategy to mitigate water shortage in summer periods. Unfortunately, the utilization of STW in agriculture is not exempt from environmental and health risks, being a potential source of toxic chemicals (e.g. heavy metals) and human pathogens (e.g. Salmonella spp. and Escherichia coli). The aim of this work is to verify whether irrigation of apple and nectarine trees with STW may lead to heavy metal and microbial contamination in shoot, leaf and fruit tissues. Three-year old trees were grown in pots and drip irrigated separately, for one season, using either tap water (TW) or STW. STW irrigation did not affect heavy metal and trace element concentration (e.g. B, Na, Zn) both in leaves and fruits. Heavy metal concentrations in fruit tissues were lower than international limits for human consumption in both species. Independently from the species, the total bacterial count (TBC) on shoot was almost the double in STW irrigated plants compared to the TW-irrigated ones. No E. coli was found in shoot and fruit; few coliforms (TC) were detected in shoot tissues and in nectarine fruits, far below European microbiological limits for foodstuff. Finally, a laboratory trial, aimed at evaluating possible mechanisms of E. coli translocation inside plants, was carried out on 3-month old peach rootstock plants (i.e. GF 677), artificially inoculated with two E. coli strains, characterized by a different level of pathogenicity (disarmed DH5α and E. coli 1576). Populations of both E. coli strains were isolated as epiphytic and as endophytic only at root level. Nonetheless, the endophytic population of the E. coli 1576 was generally higher than the DH5α strain. Colonization of the epigeal part was never observed. These results are promising for the use of STW, especially for drip irrigated orchards, since water does not wet the canopy and consequently the final product.

Evaluation of the Farming Potential of Echinacea Angustifolia DC. Accessions Grown in Italy by Root-Marker Compound Content and Morphological Trait Analyses.

The Echinacea genus includes a number of species that are commercially employed for the preparation of herbal products. Echinacea angustifolia DC. is one of these and is widely used, mainly for its immunomodulating properties, as it contains a wide range of compounds that belong to different chemical classes. In particular, echinacoside, cynarin and lipophylic alkylamides are the main specialized metabolites of the roots and can be considered to be marker compounds. In this work, 65 E. angustifolia accessions have been compared in a field trial in Italy, with the aim of investigating the variability/stability of the weight and chemical composition of their roots in order to identify the accessions that are most promising for future genetic-improvement programs. The morphological characteristics of the aerial parts have also been investigated. Seventeen samples were discarded due to germination or plantlet-development issues. Seven of the remaining accessions were identified as being different Echinacea species after a combined phytochemical and morphological evaluation. The morphological traits of the epigeal part, the root weight and the chemical composition data of the 41 confirmed E. angustifolia accessions were submitted to multivariate statistical analysis and a moderately homogenous sample distribution, with low selected-marker variability, was observed. Good echinacoside content was detected in almost all roots (>0.5%). However, two groups of accessions stood out because of their interesting features: One group possessed small roots, but had a high concentration of marker compounds, while another had highly developed roots and a good amount of marker compounds. These accessions can therefore be exploited for future selection work.

Potential Yield Estimates for marine fisheries of Gujarat

Seagrass meadows worldwide are declining fast, taking with them many species which depend on these underwater prairies as their habitat and feeding as well as breeding grounds. Our results obtained on the biomass and density of seagrass vegetation in the reef and lagoons of Agatti, Chetlat, Kavaratti and Kiltan Islands of U.T. Lakshadweep, indicated gradual but steady shrinking of seagrass meadows. The percentage reduction in density of seagrass meadows since December 2011 to November 2015 was estimated at 88.5% in Agatti, 88.7% in Chetlat, 78.4% in Kavaratti and 81.3% in Kiltan. Wet biomass of parts below the sediment were always higher than the epigeal parts comprising leaves, stem and bracts. The possible reason behind this decline in seagrass biomass might be grazing, deterioration of water quality due to increased anthropogenic activities and climate change. This situation calls for urgent steps to monitor the ecology and physico-chemical parameters of water and sediment in the existing meadows and to undertake immediate habitat restoration programmes.

Shrinking seagrass meadowsobservations from four Lagoons of Lakshadweep Archipelago

Seagrass meadows worldwide are declining fast, taking with them many species which depend on these underwater prairies as their habitat and feeding as well as breeding grounds. Our results obtained on the biomass and density of seagrass vegetation in the reef and lagoons of Agatti, Chetlat, Kavaratti and Kiltan Islands of U.T. Lakshadweep, indicated gradual but steady shrinking of seagrass meadows. The percentage reduction in density of seagrass meadows since December 2011 to November 2015 was estimated at 88.5% in Agatti, 88.7% in Chetlat, 78.4% in Kavaratti and 81.3% in Kiltan. Wet biomass of parts below the sediment were always higher than the epigeal parts comprising leaves, stem and bracts. The possible reason behind this decline in seagrass biomass might be grazing, deterioration of water quality due to increased anthropogenic activities and climate change. This situation calls for urgent steps to monitor the ecology and physico-chemical parameters of water and sediment in the existing meadows and to undertake immediate habitat restoration programmes.

Suburban ecology of the crested porcupine in a heavily poached area: a global approach

Urban areas not only provide wildlife with new ecological niches, in terms of food availability, human protection and den sites but also they increase the possibility of conflict with man. Despite being a protected species in Italy, the crested porcupine is considered as an agricultural pest, with a tasty meat, thus widely poached. We studied food selection and other ecological factors shaping the ranging behaviour of crested porcupines in a suburban area, where a high poaching pressure could be expected. We monitored radio-tagged adult, paired crested porcupines throughout 1 year. Over 70% of individually marked porcupines were poached. Despite the local absence of predators, but in presence of poaching pressure, porcupines avoided clear moonlight nights and daylight activity, establishing dens in thorny thickets. Deciduous woodlands and shrubwood were positively selected for feeding throughout the year, while farmlands and fallows were underused. Although the crested porcupine has been confirmed as a “generalist” species in terms of food selection, with adaptations to dig underground storage organs, a strong preference for fruits and epigeal parts of plants was detected in our study. Porcupines evolved in Asia and Africa with a number of competing grazing herbivores, as well as in presence of a heavy predation risk leading to development of quills. This might have confined them to exploit roots and rhizomes as food, as well as scrub habitats for protection. Our results suggest that porcupines can revert to the use of optimal food resources, when local selective forces allow it.

Durum wheat infected by Stagonospora nodorum: survey on electrophoretic protein pattern modifications.

Stagonospora nodorum blotch (SNB) is a fungal disease of wheat caused by Stagonospora nodorum. The fungus attacks epigeous parts of the plant causing direct damage to kernel with heavy yield losses. This study aimed at evaluating the effect of S. nodorum infection on the electrophoretic protein pattern of durum wheat kernels. The protein pattern of kernels harvested from plants artificially infected in the field and of kernels inoculated in vitro, was defined by SDS- PAGE. Starting from this experimental set, two sub-samples were analysed, the first without further manipulation, the second after an incubation at different time intervals on water agar plates. The results did not disclose any change in the protein pattern of the first sub-sample of kernels whereas a profound alteration of their protein profile occurred after incubation. This result would suggest that albeit the pathogen has the ability to degrade host proteins is unable to express the same ability during field infection.

Chemical Constituents of Pulicaria uliginosa

Previously, the epigeal part of P. uliginosa afforded essential oil (0.24%), organic acids (2.4%), carbohydrates (4.5%), alkaloids (0.1%), coumarins (0.94%), flavonoids (1.3%), tanning agents (5.1%), and vitamin C [4]. We isolated a sesquiterpene lactone [5] and flavone [6] from P. uliginosa collected in the vicinity of Pungon village, Pap district, Namangan province (Uzbekistan). In continuation of research on the chemical composition of the aerial part of P. uliginosa, we extracted the plant collected during flowering with EtOH (70%) at room temperature. The combined EtOH extract was evaporated in vacuo, diluted with H 2 O (1:1), and shaken sequentially with extraction naphtha, CHCl 3 , EtOAc, and n-BuOH. The EtOAc extract was chromatographed over a column of silica gel using gradients of extraction naphtha–EtOAc (10:1–1:1) and CHCl 3 –MeOH (25:1–1:1) to isolate compounds 1–5 of terpenoid and phenolic nature. The structures of the isolated compounds were elucidated using spectral data (PMR, 13 C NMR, DEPT, HSQC, HMBC, COSY) and direct

Essential oil composition of Reseda lutea from Iran

The genus Reseda is one of the herbs in the Resedaceae family [1]. In Iran, this genus is represented by 10 species, including Reseda lutea L. [1]. R. lutea, known as yellow mignonette or wild mignonette, has economic importance. It has been used as a medicinal plant, in salads, in the carpet and rug industry as a source of natural dye, in animal husbandry as a grazing plant and stock food source, in honey production, in combating erosion, and as a primary succession plant [2, 3]. On the other hand, the species is regarded as a weed in some parts of the world, especially in cultivated areas [4]. Sener et al. also reported that the extract of R. lutea possesses pharmacological activities against insects, brine shrimp, nematodes, and microorganisms [5]. Likewise, Nakhatov et al. isolated some alkaloids from the epigeal parts of R. lutea [6]. In this study, due to its economic importance and wide distribution in Iran, the essential oil composition of R. lutea was investigated for the first time. The essential oil components obtained from the aerial part of R. lutea are listed in Table 1, where the percentage and Kovats indices of the components are given. As shown in Table 1, analysis of the aerial parts oil of R. lutea resulted in the identification of 42 constituents, representing 95.6% of the oil. The main constituents of the oil were benzonitrile (17.9%), (Z)-phytol (13.0%), n-heptacosane (7.5%) -ionone (6.2%), hexahydrofarnesyl acetone (5.1%), and palmitic acid (4.6%). The aerial parts of R. lutea were collected during the flowering stage in the Alamut region, province of Qazvin, Iran, in May 2010. Voucher specimens (No. 8273) have been deposited at the Herbarium of the Research Institute of Forests and Rangelands (TARI), Tehran, Iran. The aerial parts (133.0 g) of the plant were subjected to hydrodistillation using a Clevenger-type apparatus and extracted by diethyl ether for 3 hrs. After decanting, drying over anhydrous sodium sulfate, and evaporating of the solvent, the corresponding yellow colored oil was recovered in a yield of 0.05% w/w. GC-FID analysis was performed on a Shimadzu 15A gas chromatograph equipped with a split/splitless (ratio 1:30) injector (250 C) and a flame ionization detector (250 C). Nitrogen was used as the carrier gas (1 mL/min), together with a DB-5 capillary column (50 m 0.2 mm, film thickness 0.32 m). The column was kept at 60 C for 3 min and then heated to 220 C with a 5 C/min rate and kept constant at 220 C for 5 min. Relative percentage amounts were calculated from the peak area using a Shimadzu C-R4A chromatopac data processor without the use of correction factors. GC-MS analysis was performed using a HewlettPackard 5973 with an HP-5MS column (30 m 0.25 mm, film thickness 0.25 m). The column temperature was kept at 60 C for 3 min and programmed to 220 C at a rate of 5 C/min and kept constant at 220 C for 5 min. The flow rate of helium as carrier gas was 1 mL/min. MS were taken at 70 eV, mass range 30 to 350 amu, and scan time 2 scans/sec. The compounds were identified by comparison of the Kovats indexonan HP-5MS column with those reported in [7] and the NIST library, and by comparison of their mass spectra with either the Wiley library or with published mass spectra [7–9]. The Kovats indices for all the components were determined according to the Van Den Dool method using n-alkanes as standards [10].

РАСТИТЕЛЬНЫЕ ИСТОЧНИКИ ХИНОЛИЗИДИНОВЫХ АЛКАЛОИДОВ НА ТЕРРИТОРИИ РЕСПУБЛИКИ БАШКОРТОСТАН. II. АЛКАЛОИДЫ THERMOPSIS SCHISCHKINII.

The chromato-mass spectrometric analysis of total alkaloids major components of Thermopsis schischkinii epigeal part from different growing areas was carried out.

Effectiveness of Amaranthus retroflexus L. aqueous extract in preventing iron chlorosis of pear trees (Pyrus communis L.)

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of soil-applied aqueous extract of Amaranthus retroflexus L. in preventing lime-induced iron (Fe) chlorosis of pear trees (Pyrus communis L.). Tree growth, nutritional status, yield and fruit quality were also assessed. The aqueous extract was obtained by soaking dried and ground canopy (epigeal part) of spontaneous A. retroflexus plants in tap water. A. retroflexus extract was chosen because of its ability to solubilize Fe from calcareous soil, which was found to be 100-fold higher than deionized water alone. Two experiments were carried out (controlled environment and commercial field conditions) where soil-applied aqueous extract of A. retroflexus alone or mixed with iron sulfate (FeSO4) was compared with synthetic Fe-chelate and an untreated control. Soil-applied aqueous extract of A. retroflexus increased shoot length, leaf SPAD and total plant biomass in controlled environment. In the commercial orchard control trees showed severe leaf Fe-chlorosis symptoms effectively prevented by Fe-chelate. The supply of A. retroflexus aqueous extract improved Fe nutrition of trees, particularly when enriched with FeSO4. Fe-chelate increased tree yield but decreased fruit weight, leaf potassium (K) and manganese (Mn) concentration. At harvest, all strategies raised fruit soluble solid concentration compared to the untreated control. Results showed that soil-applied A. retroflexus aqueous extract improved Fe nutritional status of pear trees, probably because of the natural Fe chelating capacity of the compounds released by its tissues.

A new melampolide and other secondary metabolites from Artemisia baldshuanica

The composition of secondary metabolites in benzene and alcohol extracts of the epigeal part of Artemisia baldshuanica Krasch. et Zarp. (Asteraceae) collected during the vegetative phase was investigated. A new melampolide, the structure of which was established based on spectral data and an x-ray crystal structure analysis, and known compounds were isolated.

Investigation of some compositional properties of Capparis spinosa seed oil growing wild in Iran from commercial utilization approach

seed oil from C. spinosa are available [2–6]. This study was made to analyze the chemical properties of seeds and oil extracted from Capparis spinosa collected from different regions of Dashte-Moghan in order to determine the possibility of commercial utilization and to assess the potential use of the extracted oil in the edible oil industry. Table 1 gives the fatty acid composition. The most predominant fatty acid is linoleic acid, with a mean value of ~47%. In addition to linoleic acid, the seed oil contains higher amounts of oleic acid and its isomer, cis-vaccenic acid, with mean values of ~23% and 13%, respectively. The seed oil also contains appreciable amounts of saturated fatty acid, especially palmitic acid, ~9%, and stearic acid, 2%. The results of fatty acid composition are in agreement with those previously reported in [6]. These results do not agree with those of other researchers who previously reported the contents of the three most important fatty acids. They found that the most abundant fatty acids were (oleic ~45%, linoleic ~25%, palmitic ~13%), (oleic ~45%, linoleic ~31%, palmitic ~12%), and (oleic 57%, linoleic 11%, palmitic 21%) which together compose about 83, 88, and 89% of the total fatty acids 2–4. The major fatty acid in those studies was oleic acid, ranging from 45% to 57%. According to the results of this study, C. spinosa seed oil is regarded as oleic-linoleic oil. In comparison with the most recent Codex Standard [7], the fatty acid composition is comparable with sesame and peanut oils. The unsaponifiable matter of C. spinosa oil was 2.36%. It is higher than the amount of unsaponifiable matter in sesame oil, 2%, and peanut oil, 1%, as reported by the Codex Alimentarius Commission [7]. According to Table 2, the -carotene content of Capparis spinosa seed oil is ~280 mg/kg and is close to unbleached palm stearin, with total carotenoids (as -carotene) ranging from 300 to 1500 mg/kg [7]. However, it is notable that there are no data in the literature on C. spinosa -carotene seed oil for comparison purposes. There are also no data on the phenolic content of C. spinosa seed oil in the literature. The total phenolic content of Capparis spinosa seed oil is ~87 mg/kg. The content of phospholipids in C. spinosa seed oil is 0.246%, and this corresponds to a similar observation, 0.3%, in [6], which reported that phosphatidylinositols, phosphatidylethanolamines, and phosphatidylcholines are the major components of the total phospholipids. In another literature report on the lipid complex of the epigeal part of C. spinosa [5], the phospholipids amounted to 4.4 g (8%), and the main components of the total phospholipids were phosphatidylglycerols, phosphatidylethanolamines, and phosphatidylcholines. Also, in comparison with that reported by Codex Alimentarius [7] in peanut oil, 0.6–2%, depending on the maturity of the peanuts from which the oil is extracted, C. spinosa seed oil has a lower phospholipid content.

Selenite resistant rhizobacteria stimulate SeO3 2– phytoextraction by Brassica juncea in bioaugmented water-filtering artificial beds

Selenium is a trace metalloid of global environmental concern. The boundary among its essentiality, deficiency, and toxicity is narrow and mainly depends on the chemical forms and concentrations in which this element occurs. Different plant species-including Brassica juncea-have been shown to play a significant role in Se removal from soil as well as water bodies. Furthermore, the interactions between such plants, showing natural capabilities of metal uptake and their rhizospheric microbial communities, might be exploited to increase both Se scavenging and vegetable biomass production in order to improve the whole phytoextraction efficiency. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the capability of selenite removal of B. juncea grown in hydroponic conditions on artificially spiked effluents. To optimize phytoextraction efficiency, interactions between B. juncea and rhizobacteria were designedly elicited. Firstly, B. juncea was grown on water-filtering agriperlite beds in the presence of three different selenite concentrations, namely, 0.2, 1.0, and 2.0 mM. Plant growth was measured after 3 and 6 weeks of incubation in order to establish the selenite concentration at which the best plant biomass production could be obtained. Afterwards, water-filtering agriperlite beds were inoculated either with a selenium-acclimated microbial community deriving from the rhizosphere of B. juncea grown, erstwhile, in a selenite-amended soil or with axenic cultures of two bacterial strains, vicelike Bacillus mycoides SeITE01 and Stenotrophomonas maltophilia SeITE02, previously isolated and described for their high resistance to selenite. These latter were seeded separately or as a dual consortium. Selenite was amended at a final concentration of 1.0 mM. Total Se content in plant tissues (both shoots and roots), plant biomass production, and persistence of bioaugmented microbial inocula during the experimental time were monitored. Moreover, parameters such as bioconcentration factor (BF) and phytoextraction efficiency (PE) were determined at the end of the testing run to evaluate the effects of the different bioaugmentation strategies adopted on selenite phytoextraction efficiency of B. juncea. A general but significant increase in capacity to extract and transport selenium to the epigeous plant compartments was recorded in B. juncea grown in beds augmented with microbial inocula, except for the treatment with B. mycoides SeITE01 alone. Nevertheless, a severe decrease in vegetable biomass production was observed after all microbial treatments with the exception of the plants that had received only S. maltophilia SeITE02. Actually, an increase in selenium phytoextraction efficiency up to 65% was observed in B. juncea, when this bacterial strain was inoculated. Emendation of B. juncea grown in water-filtering beds with a Se(IV)-acclimated microbial community caused a higher Se uptake along with a reduction of plant biomass yield with respect to plants grown without addition of the same bacterial inoculum. The increase of selenium BF in shoots suggests that the Se(IV)-acclimated microbial community not only elicited the plant capacity to absorb selenite, but also did improve the capacity to transport the metalloid to the epigeous compartments. On the other hand, the reduction in plant biomass yield might be related exactly to this improved capability of B. juncea to accumulate selenium at concentrations that are actually toxic for plants. Differently, addition of two selenite-resistant bacterial strains, namely, S. maltophilia SeITE02 and B. mycoides SEITE01, had weaker effects on plant biomass production when compared to those recorded in the presence of the Se(IV)-adapted microbial community. In particular, inoculation of water-filtering beds with the SeITE02 strain alone was the sole strategy resulting in a positive effect on both plant biomass production in stressful conditions and the capacity of shoots to accumulate selenium. In fact, its putative ability of reducing Se(IV) to organo-Se compounds significantly enhanced either selenium absorption by the plants or active metalloid translocation to epigeous parts. Bioaugmentation with the bacterial strain S. malthophila SeITE02 is suggested to elicit selenite phytoextraction efficiency in B. juncea. Manipulation of synergistic interactions between plants having phytoextraction capabilities and their associated rhizobacteria may enhance already consolidated treatment processes aimed to detoxify selenite laden wastewater.