Epic Songs Research Articles

К ВОПРОСУ О ФУНКЦИОНАЛЬНОЙ КЛАССИФИКАЦИИ БЫЛИННЫХ СЮЖЕТОВ

The classification of epic plots proposed by the Pudoga bylina narrator F.A. Konashkov still remains largely undefined in scholarly literature, though its analysis is important for historical functional appreciation of the Russian epic folklore. According to A.M. Linevskii, F.A. Konashkov selected his bylinas taking into account the gender-and-age, family, professional, and social status of his listeners (i.e., there are bylinas for young people, married couples, the military, the Heads, the merchants, etc.) and that principle, however plain in some aspects, implies a special understanding by the bylina narrator of his repertoire. Since it is inconceivable that the bylinas being intended for one class of listeners turned out to be – in terms of their language or composition – difficult for another, it seems only logical to conclude that the division in question is based on a certain extra-aesthetic principle. As shown by a comparative axiological analysis of each bylina group, all epic songs here are united by a similar didactic moral intent, an affirmation of comparable spiritual values and, consequently, a denial of categories and notions opposed to them. Therefore, F.A. Konashkov’s classification indicates those spiritual therapeutic tasks that could challenge Russian bylina narrators in a situation of the oral text’s “natural” existence – and, accordingly, can be applied to the whole corpus of national epic folklore.

Banović Strahinja između pesme i filma

This paper brings insight into the content and analysis of the screenplay "Soko" (The Hawk) (1977) which Saša Petrović (1929-1994) created according to the epic folk song "Banović Strahinja". Critical approaches to adaptations are numerous and varied, and in this paper we rely on newer theories (Robert Stam, Linda Hutcheon, Dudley Andrew, David Krantz, Thomas Leitch, Sarah Cardwell...) which perceive the adaptation for other media as an autonomous work of equal status as the original work and which reject fidelity to the original as the criteria for appraisal of adaptations. The comparative approach in this paper was used to see the way in which the narrative, thematic and aesthetic elements were created for the needs of the new media. In addition to the analysis of literary segments, we have included the analysis of film, intertextual and contextual elements, which we considered relevant for the interpretation and assessment of the adaptation. Petrović is a director who, although he made famous his country's cinematography in the world, did not receive the opportunity to record this film. Special attention in this paper is dedicated to the scene within the tent of the Vlah Alija and the scene with the wolves, and both of them conform to the Genet's notion of paraleptic continuation, which illustrate Petrović's creative manner in the process of adaptation of the literary work.

THE IMPORTANCE OF MATIJA MURKO’S RESEARCH FOR UNDERSTANDING THE MUSICAL TRADITION OF BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA

The paper presents the research and sound documentation carried out by Matija Murko in Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1912–1913 and 1930–1931. It focuses on the importance of Murko’s research and his collected field material in gaining a historical perspective on the past and present musical traditions of Bosnia and Herzegovina and its transformations. Murko’s recordings provide some significant insights into the singing of epic songs accompanied by gusle, the sevdalinke performed to the accompaniment of the violin, and the singing of ravna songs. Murko’s recordings are often the oldest and—in some cases—the only recorded evidence of the existence of certain musical practices.

Мотив богатырского поединка в эпическом репертуаре джангарчи Телтя Лиджиева

In the epic repertoire of the famous jangarchi Teltya Lidzhiev (1906–1970) who belonged to the epic school of the rhapsodist Eelyan Ovla, the motif of heroic duel is a plot-forming one. Goals. The article examines the motif of heroic duel in the repertoire of jangarchi Teltya Lidzhiev in order to identify the preservation and sequence of its narrative units. Methods. When it comes to analyze the epic songs of Teltya Lidzhiev against similar songs of the rhapsodist Eelyan Ovla, the comparative method is employed. Results. The comparative analysis reveals that the motif of heroic duel, associated with the presentation of an ultimatum to the hostile ruler and the raiding of the enemy’s herd, retains the same sequence of narrative units as that in the source text of the predecessor. Conclusions. The research has shown that the motif of heroic duel associated with the enemy’s ultimatum, being an important part of the narrative, appears in the form of a predicative construction where all elements are interconnected. The motif of the heroic duel, associated with the presentation of an ultimatum by Jangar himself to the hostile khan and the raiding of the latter’s herd, being a plot-forming element, is characterized by a stable sequence. In the songs of Teltya Lidzhiev, the epic narrative is always centered around the hero whose heroification is emphasized in the course of the development of the motif of heroic duel.

A KALEVALA FINLANDESA: CONTEXTO HISTÓRICO, SEU PROCESSO DE COLETA E ESCRITA, QUESTÕES DE GÊNERO E POSSÍVEIS MOTIVOS MITOLÓGICOS

Written in the 19th century, the Kalevala is held as the epic of the Finnish people. Its content was based in the traditional epic songs collected by Elias Lönnrot during eleven field trips through Finland and Karelia. The goal of the present paper is to present the historical background which gave birth to such a work, knowingly, the Romantism-influenced desire to build a Finnish common identity and to symbolically emancipate the country from foreign rulers. We are also going bring into light the processes of collection, textualization and edition took by Lönnrot during the creation of the Kalevala, as well as the models he had in mind while doing so. Finally, we are going to present a possible categorization of this material in regards to gender, also revealing some of its contents which are connected to mythological themes from the vernacular tradition.

NOGAY CYCLE OF THE KAZAKH HEROIC EPIC

Epic song heritage is an important and significant part of the Kazakh folklore. Important, socially significant issues of the Kazakh epic, an integral and composite part of the global epic heritage – praising the actions of the arrow-hunter, who lives separately from the people, protection of the family, protection of the clan, tribe, El, Motherland from foreign invaders, the struggle for the unity and independence of the people, the struggle for personal happiness, protection of honor and dignity of the individual, glorifying personal qualities of the average member of society, depiction of the internal struggles, religious feelings and affections, as well as interpersonal, intra-family, intra-tribe and inter-tribe interactions, etc. The national theme of protection of the Motherland, being relevant in many periods of history of Kazakhstan, is a dominant theme of the epics with heroic orientation, which received the highest artistic expression in classical samples of the heroic epic which were rightly included into the golden Foundation of the world epic heritage; images of the heroes- defenders became an example to follow for many generations. Heroes of classical samples of the heroic epic, for example, epics "Alpamys Batyr", "Kobylandy Batyr", "Kambar Batyr", etc. protect interests of specific clans and tribes which they lead. Heroes of Nogay cycle of the heroic epic don't protect a specific clan or tribe, but the whole Nogay El. In historical epics, the batyrs defend the interests of the Kazakh khanate, fight for freedom, independence, peace and happy life of the entire Kazakh people. These epic genres give us a panoramic picture of the progressive development of the national epic from the clan-tribal to the State epic. Nogay cycle is a semantically significant part of the heroic Kazakh epic, a symbol of a certain stage of its historical development. Nogay cycle of heroic epic is created within the frame of national epic traditions, however, it is characterized by its specific parameters and features.

ТУРКМЕНСЬКА ЕПІЧНА ПІСНЯ: МУЗИКОЗНАВЧИЙ ПІДХІД

Метою дослідження є виявлення жанрових та структурних особливостей туркменських епічних пісень. Для досягнення поставленої мети вирішуються такі завдання, як: опис локальних шкіл епічного розповідання, виявлення стильових особливостей співаків-розповідачів, аналіз епічних пісень з метою розкриття їхніх жанрових та композиційних особливостей. Методологія дослідження. У роботі використовується переважно порівняльно-історичний метод дослідження. Уперше в туркменській науці епічні жанри вивчаються комплексно, включно із прозовими та поетичними текстами, пісенною структурою та мистецтвом розповідачів. Наукова новизна. Виявлено, що носіями усної професійної творчості в Туркменістані є бахші, котрі продовжують творчі традиції огузських озанів, найбільш ранні зразки мистецтва яких відносяться до періоду тюркських каганів. Окрім епосів «Гьорогли» та «Горкут ата», спадщину туркменських розповідачів складають багаточисленні дестани. Основним структурним елементом у дестанах є епічна пісня, для композиції якої типовою є куплетна форма. Епічні пісні класифікуються на вступні, серединні та завершальні, кожній групі притаманні конкретні функції. Висновки. Доведено, що найвищим досягненням туркменської народної творчості, в якій знайшли відображення національні риси, високі духовні, моральні та патріотичні ідеали народу, є мистецтво епічних розповідачів. Усне розповсюдження епічної творчості сприяло збереженню низки атрибутивних прийомів мистецтва і виразних можливостей музичної мови. Загалом у дослідженні здійснено лише перший крок до вивчення епічної спадщини туркменів, у якій ще багато білих плям. Епічні пісні, що становлять собою стійкі структури, в устах різних розповідачів варіюються, підкреслюючи індивідуальну особливість кожного виконавця. Отже, народна пісня є основою, яка фокусує в собі стиль виконання не лише конкретного дестанчі, а й цілої школи.

Летопись и былина: как Александр Попович стал Алешей

<p>Статья посвящена проблеме исторических оснований русского героического эпоса. В качестве примера рассматривается происхождение образа знаменитого былинного богатыря Алеши Поповича через призму известий о его предполагаемом прототипе в памятниках средневековой литературы.</p><p>На примерах показаны собирательный характер былинных образов, условность былинного историзма. В то же время демонстрируется, что эпос и литература Руси находились в тесном взаимодействии. Первый этап формирования фольклорно-литературного образа Александра Поповича в средневековых памятниках представлен «Описанием об Александре Поповиче» (предположительно XIV в.). Именно оно является наиболее вероятным источником первых летописных упоминаний о ростовском «храбре».</p><p>Известия об Александре Поповиче в летописях XV в. демонстрируют усиление легендарного элемента, начало сближения исторических припоминаний о персонаже с образами «героического века» русских былин. Окончательное выражение эта тенденция находит в Никоновской летописи, где Александр Попович впервые представлен и как современник князя Владимира, и как герой начала XIII в.</p><p>В троицком «Сказании об Александре Поповиче» (первая половина XVI в.) он действует в столь же вневременном легендарном пространстве удельной Руси. К XVII в. относится первая запись неоднократно фиксировавшегося позднее былинного сюжета об Алеше Поповиче и Тугарине Змеевиче.</p><p>Перечисленные памятники ценны тем, что позволяют проследить эволюцию одного из центральных былинных образов практически от истоков. Это в свою очередь демонстрирует условность как чисто «исторических», так и чисто «мифологических» подходов к происхождению героического эпоса.</p>

L. N. Tolstoy’s “epic poems” as a factor of distorted reflection of epos in the Russian epic poetry, pedagogy and art of the late XIX – early XX century

This article makes an attempt to determine semantic and value distinctions of epic poems written by L. N. Tolstoy for pedagogical project “Azbuka” (an alphabet book) from authentic epic songs of the Russian people, as well as trace the influence of Tolstoy’s interpretation upon the reception of epos in the Russian educates society of the late XIX century. Substituting the epic Niola with the titanic “working man” Mikula, Tolstoy corrects the original concept of the epic poem by counterpoising Svyatogor and Mikula Selyanovich, reflecting the social class conflict of aristocracy and the commoners. The poetic tale of Lev Tolsytoy “Volga and Mikula” presents his ideal of the peaceful worker, who does not resist the evil of the provider, and whose work and meekness hold the society together. This ideal advances the previously unfamiliar to Russian epic consciousness values: sacralization of agricultural work, avoidance of military life and governance of the state, as well as exclusive value of peasant origin. Tolstoy’s image of the “working man” was received is chrestomathies of F, Buslaev and A. Galakhov, works of V. Avenarius, M. Vrubel, K. Balmont and N. Roerich.

Мордовский эпос «Масторава» А. Шаронова (к вопросу о типологических чертах книжной формы эпоса финно-угорских народов)

Introduction: the article is devoted to the Erzya-Moksha epos «Mastorava» in terms of the originality of its plot, composition, set of the characters, ideological content and folklorism in the context of problem of typological factors of book form of epos of the Finno-Ugric peoples. Objective: to study the epos «Mastorava» through the prism of its content and structure, with the identification of poetic and ideological originality. Research materials: the text of the epos «Mastorava» (2020), namely, its five parts («The Age of the Gods», «The Ancient Age», «The Age of Tyushtyan», «The Age of Enemies», «The New Age») considered from the point of view of their artistic unity, as well as the scientific works devoted to the analysis of the work. Results and novelty of the research: analysis of the «Mastorava» in the considered aspect shows that the epos was created on the basis of folklore myths, epic songs and legends reproducing the mythological, epic and historical periods in the development of the Mordovian ethnos; the time frames covers various stages of sociocultural development of the people. The «Mastorava» is original in terms of content and form, however it has much in common with the epic poetry of the Finno-Ugric peoples. For the first time, the authors based on the analysis of the artistic structure of the new edition (2020) of the epos and the identification of the conceptual integrity of the text prove that A. M. Sharonov’s «Mastorava» has typological features of the book forms of the Finno-Ugric epos.

Былинная география как пространство, размеченное смыслами

Researching the connection between place-names and their meanings as the latter are rendered in bylinas, the author tries to disprove the widespread conceptions according to which the geography presented in Russian epic songs is treated as isolated from the reality, as based on epic singers’ erroneous associations of these or those place-names and climatic zones with the four cardinal points, etc. The author concludes that many place-names rendered in bylinas may be treated as presupposing real prototypes – if it is assumed that the bylina universe is marked similarly to the artistic world of Russian spiritual verses. The fact that many bylina plots are connected with the Latyr stone enables one to consider the Holy Land – along with Constantinople, Mount Athos (known in bylinas as “the Holy Mount”), “the Caucasian Mountains”, “the Ararat Mountains”, “the Greek Land”, and “the orochinsk Mountains” – as nearly the main setting of bylina conflicts. In the author’s opinion, so as to render bylina “metahistorical” events, it was necessary to use not certain but “universal” place-names – the ones that indicated not a historicаl event, but different events brought together by the epic consciousness on the principle of spiritual analogy (for example, the image of Kalin Tsar’s invasion may reflect either the Mongol massacre of the 13th century or the Grande Armйe’s encroachment into Russia). Thus, the place-names used in Russian folk epics were of fixed value coordinates, which, in their turn, were well-known to the traditional audience – and so could be used by the epic singer in order to influence his listeners’ value centers.

ОБРАЗ ЗАПОРОЖЦЯ КИРИЛА ТУРАУ ВИКРЕСЛЕНОМУ ФРАГМЕНТІ РОМАНУ П. КУЛІША «ЧОРНА РАДА»

The subject of the inquiry is editions and versions of the text of the novel “The Black Council: The Chronicle of 1663” by Panteleimon Kulish. The objective of the study is to analyze a fragment of the original edition (released in 1846), that was not included in the final text (released in 1857), peculiar in that it contains materials to characterize the image of the Cossack. Analysis of this fragment in the interpretive and textual planes provides for a better understanding of the creative method of P. Kulish as the author of the “The Black Council”. The methodology of the article comprises of a combination of source studies and comparative methods, which helps to solve the raised textual problems. In particular, the comparison of different editions reveals the effect of the “blind eye” when reading the final text: the omitted place correlates with the immediate context, and upon careful reading of the novel one could notice a possible omission, because its presence somewhat violates the logic of presentation. As a result, it has been revealed that the Russian-language equivalent of the fragment is contained in a magazine publication “Kyiv Pilgrims in the 17th Century” (1846). This text is a dialogue between hetman Yakym Somko, Cossack Kyrylo Tur, colonel-priest Ivan Shram and his friend Matvii Cherevan. V. Petrov’s statement that the writer “builds his novel by wide concentric closed motivational circles”, using the methods of refutations and oppositions, has been confirmed. In textual criticism terms, this fragment in the final version reveals the effect of the “blind eye” while reading the novel. Cherevan’s remark (that only in the Sich everybody knows how to “live the right way”) is in response to Tur’s statement that the Cossacks are hardy drinkers and Tur’s ignoring of Somko’s accusations that the Cossacks sit up to their neck in vodka in the final text are less motivated than in the original version. Also, it is revealed that the source of Tur’s statement is that the Sich Cossacks divide the spoils of war in three parts: to the needs of the church, to the military needs and Cossacks festivities and fun. The author used an allusion to the epic song [duma] about Samiilo Kishka. The analyzed fragment of the original edition is published for the first time, which determines the novelty of the study. The analysis of Kyrylo Tur’s image in this fragment is promising in connection with the forthcoming comprehensive study of the topic, which will become possible after the publication of all draft texts of both versions of the novel in Complete Works by P. Kulish.

Literary reminiscences and the symbols of modern Finland in Ismo Alanko’s poetry

The article discusses the imagery system in the work of the modern Finnish poet Ismo Alanko. Literary and folklore traditions in his poetry are well researched. The poet has created a rather critical image of Finland as a Lutheran country full of national markers, but well-aware of its literature: “Martti Luther ja muovipussi” (Martin Luther and a plastic bag). Images of Finnish architecture, gray buildings in glass and metal, and a heavy gray northern sky connect Alanko’s poetry to Russian culture, to the name of Isaak Levitan who negatively described Finland as a kingdom of gray. Alanko clearly knows about Levitan’s words “Gray water and gray people, gray life”, but he gets into a debate with the artist, proving that gray has many shades of joy. One of the leaders of Finnish expressionism, Uuno Kailas, associated the nature and people of Finland with gray. But Kailas’ gray is clearly negative and lifeless. Alanko, on the other hand, distinguishes in gray all kinds of positive signs of life. His poems are characterized by the description of the lyrical hero’s irrational states against the background of the fantastic landscapes of Lapland, creating mythological images not immediately amenable to interpretation. For example, in the image of Mooneye from the North (kuusilmä pohjoisesta), there is a motif of turning a girl into a fish, typical for Finnish and Karelian epic songs, also familiar to us from Kalevala and Eino Leino’s poetry. Alanko comprehends serious worldview problems with poetic elegance, with the power of poetic word removing the contradiction between religious and common, rational, and irrational. Alanko revives Kalevala meter not in a “museum” form, but with modern accents and in his native Finnish language.

Spiritual Song in Ukrainian Folklore Milieu

The paper outlines the original phenomenon of a spiritual song in the Ukrainian oral tradition, determines characteristic features of these texts and their functions. Besides, the author focuses on some special research issues concerning the folklore religious repertoire, first of all, the specificity of the relationship between spiritual and secular epic songs.
 The spiritual song in the Ukrainian oral tradition is a large group of poetical and musical works, united primarily by the religious Christian themes and endowed with the ability to acquire special spiritual meaning in the life of a believer, exercise an important function of satisfying his/her spiritual religious needs. Another defining feature of these songs is a lack of clear attachment to a certain rite, time, occasion. An episodic attachment of individual texts to the rite only reveals their multifunctionality, since, as a rule, the same work may be used in various rituals, appear in the repertoire of professional singers, and perform some other functions simultaneously. Essential for the differentiation of the spiritual song phenomenon in the folklore milieu is the fact of distinguishing this group of works and perceiving it as integrity by the bearers of tradition themselves until now. They use special folk concepts for its designation (‘God’s songs’, ‘psalms’). At the same time, this large stratum of folk repertoire is divided into two sub-groups, namely folklorized songs of book origin and those of folk origin. Thus, the phenomenon of a spiritual song in the Ukrainian oral tradition is characterized by a rich variety of texts in terms of character, time of emergence, nature, form, style, and genre features.
 The practice of perception, recording, and comprehension of spiritual songs has developed certain concepts and approaches. The present paper offers an attempt to systematize the previous experience and distinguish the problems that were raised in the works by various researchers and remained topical, often lacking a proper resolution. Attention to the system of the research approaches gives a guideline to the author and forms a sense of the continuing tradition.

ARISTOTELIAN CONCEPTS: A STUDY OF TRAGIC VISION

At first, Aristotle defined tragedy in Poetics around 330 BC. All other decisions related to tragedy followed by Aristotelian concept. Aristotle says, "Tragedy, then, is an imitation of a noble and complete action, having the proper magnitude; it employs language that has been artistically enhanced …; it is presented in dramatic, not narrative form, and achieves, through the representation of pitiable and fearful incidents, the catharsis of such incidents.” Several of these terms require explanation. "Imitation" (mimesis) does not refer wholly to acting out something on stage. Aristotle recognizes many forms of imitation including epic poetry (Homer), painting, song, and dance. “Noble, does not mean that the characters are necessarily of high moral standing or that they must always be kings, heroes, or gods: the title character of Euripides' Medea is a wicked sorceress who kills her own children. According to Hardison, the term could be translated as larger than life, majestic, or serious”. [4]

Epos as a factor of formation of ethnic identity of a personality (on the example of Republic of Mordovia)

The preservation and development of ethnic and cultural diversity of the peoples of Russia, the harmonization of national and interethnic relations can be achieved through the education of a person, a representative of a particular ethnic group (the bearer of its culture), as well as the development of a person, a citizen of one’s country. In other words, it can happen through the formation of ethnic and closely related civil identity of the individual within the framework of ethno-cultural education. In the work the institutional approach is applied to the problem of ethno-cultural education, which reveals its possibilities from the perspective of relationships with the ethnic group, socio-cultural sphere and society. It allows to consider ethno-cultural education not only as a mechanism for the transfer of knowledge and training, but also as a cultural institution, which is an important means of preserving and developing the individual’s human and national identity. Ethno-cultural education employs various methods and means of influence on the individual, aimed at preserving ethnic identity and national worldview. Epos becomes a powerful means of education and preservation of the national genetic code in the younger generation, and the formation of not only national but also universal values. The Mordovian epos “Mastorava” has received world popularity. Its literary version was created by a scholar and a poet A. M. Sharonov on the ancient Erzya and Moksha myths and epic songs. Meanwhile, it remains insufficiently studied, and its educational opportunities remain unrealized. The authors conclude that it is expedient to be included in the process of ethnocultural education in a multinational region by the means of the study of epic works of the peoples inhabiting it, which will contribute to the formation of the ethnic identity of the individual.

О происхождении некоторых топонимов в эпосе «Джангар»

The article deals with epic toponymy which is of particular interest to clarify the history of the Kalmyk heroic epic Jangar. Names of natural objects remain preserved for thousands of years, so they are of high historical value. The analysis of epic place names makes it possible to trace the ethnic and migration processes in a certain area, to identify cultural contacts between different ethnic groups and to recreate the ethno-cultural background. In Jangar epic songs, some names of natural objects are associated with the Altai which is a characteristic feature of the entire epic of Mongolic peoples. Those also contain toponymic vocabulary that could have been included into the text of the epic tale of the Kalmyks in the Volga Region already where, according to the assumption of authoritative experts in epic studies, the cyclization of Jangar songs could have taken place. The paper attempts to substantiate into the ‘geography’ of the Kalmyk epic using the Eastern European and Central Asian toponymic elements.

ACTUAL EXISTENTIAL ISSUES OF BAROQUE PERIOD IN FOLK-SONGS LEGACY (BASED ON COLLECTION “SONGS OF PEOPLE OF GALICIA” BY Z. PAULI)

The article is devoted to context specific of folk songs from the collection “Songs of people of Galicia” by polish folklorist Z. Pauli. General and subjective problems and issues of Ukrainian society in 17th and 18th centuries were revealed. Song’s lyrics were analyzed and actual problems of baroque Ukrainian’s life were highlighted. Each of these problems and issues has it’s specific worldview expression. This worldview response to society and subjective problems of Baroque was presented in folk songs. Thus, the problems of Ukrainian community and personal issues was considered in terms of worldview specific. So, in our point of view the main problems of Ukrainian Baroque society were “cossachyna” and conscription. Attitude of ordinary people to cossacks, their life and role in the state’s fate presented in historical songs, epic songs and Cossack songs. Context of these songs from Z. Pauli collection showed us some important worldview responses to the Cossacks. As a response to the historical events of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries formed the cult of the warrior’s force. So the main virtues were agility and courage of the warrior. “Cossack glory” was one of the main values in the mass perception of Ukrainians. And was defeating during the battle was the most threat in terms of the relatives of warrior. In the song’s lyrics of 18th century the theme of soldier’s military duty hade wide spreading. Many families had to say good bye to their close relatives. That’s why the frequently motives of soldier songs are farewell, anguish and sorrow. Social problems such as insecurity, orphanhood and gender imbalance, caused by man’s military service, became a relevant for ordinary citizens. Personal existential problems presented in lyric songs and ballads. Widespread subjective problems such as freedom of someone own choice, choice contrary to the social or family opinion, contradictory feelings, emotions and actions outlined in folk-song’s lyrics. Frequently such song’s lyrics expressed metaphysical meditations about loneliness, person’s place in the world, happiness and desire to be happy, the influence of fate on human life etc. This group of songs present a typical Baroque pessimism. So, us our research showed ancient folk songs are real rich source for understanding worldview of our ancestors.

Song(s) of Struggle: A Decolonial Reading of Psalm 137 in Light of South Africa's Struggle Songs

This article engages in a decolonial reading of Ps 137 in light of South African songs of struggle. In this reading, Ps 137 is regarded as an epic song which combines struggle songs which originated within the golah community in response to the colonial relations between the oppressor and the oppressed. The songs of struggle then gained new life during the post-exilic period as a result of the new colonial relation between the Yehud community and the Persian Empire. Therefore, Ps 137 should be viewed as not a mere song, but an anthology of songs of struggle: a protest song (vv. 1-4), a sorrow song (vv. 5-6), and a war song (vv. 7-9). https://doi.org/10.17159/2312-3621/2019/v32n2a12

A Man Fighting a Lion: A Christian 'Theme' in Yiddish Epics

During the medieval and early modern periods, lions served as a common motif in Ashkenazic Jewish culture, bearing diverse symbolism. Also in literature written in Yiddish, the vernacular language of Ashkenazic Jews, lions were often mentioned. In this article, three songs about a man fighting a lion – Samson, David, and Benaiah – found within early modern Yiddish epics, are presented. An analysis of these songs' similar content and form suggests that they are short epic songs which have been initially orally transmitted, and later incorporated into the written long epics in Yiddish which have come down to us. In two of the songs the hero holds the lion's mouth with both hands, shortly before subduing him, an image common in Jewish art but lacking any basis in Jewish texts. This study identifies a Christian background to this image, namely that Samson's battle with the lion foreshadows the Harrowing of Hell and Jesus' releasing mankind’s souls from eternal damnation. The study points to the close cultural ties between Jews and Christians in the medieval and early modern eras, which were possible in the sphere of vernacular Yiddish literature. This closeness brought about influences which do not seem to exist in Hebrew literature.