Enzyme-like Catalytic Activity Research Articles

Mn3O4–Au nanozymes as peroxidase mimic and the surface-enhanced Raman scattering nanosensor for the detection of hydrogen peroxide

The artificial enzyme-mimicking system using nanomaterials has attracted significant research interest in chemical and biological sensing for industrial and environmental applications. Mn3O4 nanostructure serves as an effective catalyst in oxidation and reduction reactions that mimic natural peroxidase enzymes. In this study, we synthesized Mn3O4–Au spindle nanocomposites (Mn3O4–Au SNCs) stabilized by L-cysteine using a simple hydrothermal reduction. The enzyme-mimicking peroxidase activity of these Mn3O4–Au SNCs with hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) was investigated in the presence of a chromogenic substrate, 3,3′,5,5′-tetramethylbenzidine that catalyzed reduction of H2O2 in water and milk giving rise to a blue color inferring the nanozyme activity of Mn3O4–Au SNCs. The exceptional enzyme-like catalytic activity of Mn3O4–Au SNC probes later proved to be excellent surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) sensor nanoprobes for sensitive H2O2 detection over a wide concentration range from 0.005 to 10 μM. The developed Mn3O4–Au SERS sensor exhibited a lower detection limit (LoD) of 2 nM in water and 0.6 μM in spiked milk indicating sensitivity for H2O2 detection with excellent selectivity, reproducibility, and long-term stability. The developed Mn3O4–Au nanoprobes demonstrated unique combination of properties with visual and SERS methods for sensitively detecting H2O2 in food, overcoming limitations of existing H2O2 sensors. The developed SERS method using nanozymes potentially be extended to detecting a variety of other redox chemicals or explosives in industries, environments, and biomedical fields.

A Magnetocatalytic Propelled Cobalt–Platinum@Graphene Navigator for Enhanced Tumor Penetration and Theranostics

A Magnetocatalytic Propelled Cobalt–Platinum@Graphene Navigator for Enhanced Tumor Penetration and Theranostics

Antioxidant Activity and Toxicity Study of Cerium Oxide Nanoparticles Stabilized with Innovative Functional Copolymers.

Oxidative stress, which is one of the main harmful mechanisms of pathologies including ischemic stroke, contributes to both neurons and endothelial cell damages, leading to vascular lesions. Although many antioxidants are tested in preclinical studies, no treatment is currently available for stroke patients. Since cerium oxide nanoparticles (CNPs) exhibit remarkable antioxidant capacities, the objective is to develop an innovative coating to enhance CNPs biocompatibility without disrupting their antioxidant capacities or enhance their toxicity. This study reports the synthesis and characterization of functional polymers and their impact on the enzyme-like catalytic activity of CNPs. To study the toxicity and the antioxidant properties of CNPs for stroke and particularly endothelial damages, in vitro studies are conducted on a cerebral endothelial cell line (bEnd.3). Despite their internalization in bEnd.3 cells, coated CNPs are devoid of cytotoxicity. Microscopy studies report an intracellular localization of CNPs, more precisely in endosomes. All CNPs reduces glutamate-induced intracellular production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in endothelial cells but one CNP significantly reduces both the production of mitochondrial superoxide anion and DNA oxidation. In vivo studies report a lack of toxicity in mice. This study therefore describes and identifies biocompatible CNPs with interesting antioxidant properties for ischemic stroke and related pathologies.

Yb3+, Er3+ Codoped Cerium Oxide Upconversion Nanoparticles Enhanced the Enzymelike Catalytic Activity and Antioxidative Activity for Parkinson's Disease Treatment.

Oxidative stress plays an important role in Parkinson's disease (PD) and is considered a therapeutic target for PD. However, most therapeutic antioxidants show limitations due to their low reactive oxygen species (ROS) catalytic properties and low crossing of blood-brain barrier. Herein, the antioxidative activity of Yb3+ and Er3+ double-doped CeO2-x (Yb/Er/CeO2-x) upconversion nanoparticles (UCNPs) is obtained for PD treatment. Doping of Yb3+ and Er3+ ions increases oxygen vacancies, which leads to higher enzymelike catalytic activities compared to CeO2-x nanoparticles alone. Tyrosine hydroxylase protein and glial fibrillary acidic protein expression in substantia nigra and striatum as well as the open-field activity test indicates that Yb/Er/CeO2-x is effective for treatment of PD. The activities of glutathione peroxidase and total antioxidant capacity increase and the production of ROS decreases with Yb/Er/CeO2-x UCNP treatment compared with MPTP-induced injury. This indicates that the mechanism of PD treatment is to catalyze ROS products. There have been no reports to date on the usage of Yb/Er/CeO2-x as an antioxidant for PD treatment. Yb/Er/CeO2-x UCNPs cross the blood-brain barrier and exhibit biocompatibility and antioxidant catalytic properties, which decrease the ROS and effectively help in treating PD.

Bioinspired Artificial "Clickase" for the Catalytic Click Immunoassay of Foodborne Pathogens.

The copper(I)-catalyzed azide-alkyne cycloaddition (CuAAC) click reaction has drawn increasing attention in the field of analytical science. However, the poor stability of Cu(I) usually hinders not only the simplicity of the click reaction but also its applications in precise analyses. Therefore, the development of a nanocatalyst containing stable Cu(I) is of great significance for broadening the application of CuAAC-based assays. Herein, inspired by the active center structure of natural multicopper oxidases (MCOs), we successfully prepared a novel nanocatalyst containing abundant stable Cu(I) as an artificial "clickase" (namely, CCN) by using glutathione to stabilize Cu(I). The stability and enzyme-like catalytic activity in the CuAAC reaction of the prepared CCN clickase were studied, and the catalytic mechanism of the CCN clickase-mediated CuAAC reaction between 3-azide-7-hydroxycoumarin (Azide 1) and propargyl alcohol (Alkyne 2) was also revealed. Compared with the existing solid CuO nanocatalysts used in CuAAC-based assays, CCN clickases exhibited plenty of superior properties (including high stability, excellent catalytic activity, no requirements of dissolution and reducing agents/radical initiator during the detection, well-defined porosities benefiting the substrate diffusion, and good biocompatibility), which can greatly increase the reaction efficiency and shorten the detection time. Encouraged by these remarkable performances, CCN clickases were used as labels to establish a new catalytic click fluorescence immunoassay for foodborne pathogens. Notably, the proposed CCN clickase-based immunoassay exhibited high analytical performances for the quantification of Salmonella enteritidis in the linear range of 102-106 CFU/mL with a limit of detection as low as 11 CFU/mL. The developed method has also been used in the determination of S. enteritidis in food samples, showing its great potential in the detection of foodborne pathogens.

A Dipeptide-Based Hierarchical Nanoarchitecture with Enhanced Catalytic Activity.

Achieving synthetic architectures with simple structures and robust biomimetic catalytic activities remains a great challenge. Herein, we explore a facile supramolecular assembly approach to construct a dipeptide-based hierarchical nanoarchitecture with enhanced enzyme-like catalytic activity. In this nanoarchitecture, nanospheres are put in a chain-like arrangement through coordination-driven directional self-assembly. The reversible transformation of anisotropic nanochains to isotropic nanospheres switches biomimetic activity. Notably, the assembled nanoarchitecture exhibits a high enzyme-like activity and remarkable long-term stability to promote hydroquinone oxidation, superior to the natural counterpart. This work will pave the way to develop reversible and reusable supramolecular biocatalysts with ordered hierarchical structures for accelerating chemical transformations.

Polymer-Coated Cerium Oxide Nanoparticles as Oxidoreductase-like Catalysts.

Cerium oxide nanoparticles have been shown to mimic oxidoreductase enzymes by catalyzing the decomposition of organic substrates and reactive oxygen species. This mimicry can be found in superoxide radicals and hydrogen peroxides, which are harmful molecules produced in oxidative stress-associated diseases. Despite the fact that nanoparticle functionalization is mandatory in the context of nanomedicine, the influence of polymer coatings on their enzyme-like catalytic activity is poorly understood. In this work, six polymer-coated cerium oxide nanoparticles are prepared by the association of 7.8 nm cerium oxide cores with two poly(sodium acrylate) and four poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG)-grafted copolymers with different terminal or anchoring end groups, such as phosphonic acids. The superoxide dismutase-, catalase-, peroxidase-, and oxidase-like catalytic activities of the coated nanoparticles were systematically studied. It is shown that the polymer coatings do not affect the superoxide dismutase-like, impair the catalase-like and oxidase-like, and surprisingly improves peroxidase-like catalytic activities of cerium oxide nanoparticles. It is also demonstrated that the particles coated with the PEG-grafted copolymers perform better than the poly(acrylic acid)-coated ones as oxidoreductase-like enzymes, a result that confirms the benefit of having phosphonic acids as anchoring groups at the particle surface.

Metal-organic frameworks-based nanozymes for combined cancer therapy

• This review summarized the recent progress in metal-organic frameworks (MOFs)-based nanozymes for cancer combination therapy. • The fundamental catalysis mechanisms and general synthetic strategies for MOFs-based nanozymes were discussed. • The progress was described with four new categories based on the characteristic factors in tumor microenvironment. • The current challenges and perspectives of these smart nanoplatforms on the future research directions were proposed. Nanomaterials with enzyme-like catalytic activity, named as nanozymes, have aroused wide research interest owing to their striking merits bridging nanotechnology and biology. Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) are a novel class of porous inorganic-organic hybrid materials made from metal ions/clusters and organic ligands, and have shown great prospect in the construction of novel nanozymes, making the as-emerged MOFs-based nanozymes promising candidates for biosensing, biocatalysis, biomedical imaging, and therapeutic applications. In this feature article, we tend to systematically summarize the recent process concerning MOFs-based nanozymes for combined cancer therapy, which emerged as a new trend in clinical oncology in view of the synergistic therapeutic efficacy and reduced side effects originating from different treatments. Firstly, classic kinds of MOFs-based nanozymes are briefly described with representatives for catalysis mechanism analysis. Secondly, general strategies for construction of MOFs-based nanozymes are discussed. Thirdly, recent advances in the application of MOFs-based nanozymes for dual or triple combination of therapeutic modalities have been reviewed in detail with a particular emphasis focusing upon underlying synergistic mechanisms involved in each combination formulation. Finally, current challenges and future perspectives of MOFs-based nanozymes with a view to maximizing their great potential in the research of translational medicine are also discussed. It is highly expected that our demonstration on this evolving area will play a more important role in the field of the personalized nanomedicine in combating cancer.

Glutathione‐Depleting Nanoenzyme and Glucose Oxidase Combination for Hypoxia Modulation and Radiotherapy Enhancement

Nanoenzymes perceive the properties of enzyme-like catalytic activity, thereby offering significant cancer therapy potential. In this study, Fe3 O4 @MnO2 , a magnetic field (MF) targeting nanoenzyme with a core-shell structure, is synthesized and applied to radiation enhancement with using glucose oxidase (GOX) for combination therapy. The glucose is oxidized by the GOX to produce excess H2 O2 in an acidic extracellular microenvironment, following which the MnO2 shell reacts with H2 O2 to generate O2 and overcome hypoxia. Concurrently, intracellular glutathione (GSH)-which limits the effects of radiotherapy (RT)-can be oxidized by the MnO2 shell while the latter is reduced to Mn2+ for T1 -weighed MRI. The core Fe3 O4 , with its good magnetic targeting ability, can be utilized for T2 -weighed MRI. In summary, the work demonstrates that Fe3 O4 @MnO2 , as a dual T1 - and T2 -weighed MRI contrast agent with strong biocompatibility, exhibits striking potential for radiation enhancement under magnetic targeting.

BSA-Decorated Magnesium Nanoparticles for Scavenging Hydrogen Peroxide from Human Hepatic Cells

Inorganic nanomaterials have gathered significant attention due to their biological enzyme-like catalytic activities, which are currently being utilized to display excellent biomedical applications...

Nanozymes: A New Disease Imaging Strategy.

Nanozymes are nanomaterials with intrinsic enzyme-like properties. They can specifically catalyze substrates of natural enzymes under physiological condition with similar catalytic mechanism and kinetics. Compared to natural enzymes, nanozymes exhibit the unique advantages including high catalytic activity, low cost, high stability, easy mass production, and tunable activity. In addition, as a new type of artificial enzymes, nanozymes not only have the enzyme-like catalytic activity, but also exhibit the unique physicochemical properties of nanomaterials, such as photothermal properties, superparamagnetism, and fluorescence, etc. By combining the unique physicochemical properties and enzyme-like catalytic activities, nanozymes have been widely developed for in vitro detection and in vivo disease monitoring and treatment. Here we mainly summarized the applications of nanozymes for disease imaging and detection to explore their potential application in disease diagnosis and precision medicine.

Enzyme-mimetic activity of sugar cane juice stabilized CuO nanospheres and CuO/GO nanocomposite: Green synthesis and applications

CuO nanosphere and CuO/GO nanocomposite have been synthesised via microwave irradiation using sugarcane juice. The juice containing sucrose and other biomolecules, act as complexing as well as capping agent and also dictate the self-assembly phenomenon during the formation of CuO NS and CuO/GO NC. The probable crystal growth mechanism proceeds via Ostwald ripening followed by oriented attachment mechanism which is also portrayed in this article. The synthesised CuO NS and CuO/GO NC were characterized using FTIR, XRD, XPS, TEM, SAED and UV–visible spectroscopy. The catalytic properties of the synthesised CuO NS and CuO/GO NC were evaluated for the aqueous phase catalytic reduction of toxic aromatic nitro compounds in the presence of NaBH4. Again, the peroxidase enzyme-like catalytic activity of synthesised CuO NS and CuO/GO NC were explored for colourimetric H2O2 sensing. Moreover, the antioxidant properties of synthesised CuO NS and CuO/GO NC are also examined by DPPH radical scavenging method. The formation of CuO/GO NC enhances the catalytic, sensing and antioxidant properties significantly compared to CuO NS due to the presence of highly conductive GO nanosheets.

Temperature-responsive iron nanozymes based on poly(N-vinylcaprolactam) with multi-enzyme activity.

Iron (Fe)-based nanozymes are widely applied in the biomedical field due to their enzyme-like catalytic activity. Herein, Fe(ii)-based coordination polymer nanohydrogels (FeCPNGs) have been conveniently prepared as a new type of nanozyme by the chelation reaction between ferrous iron and polymer nanohydrogels. The P(VCL-co-NMAM) nanohydrogels prepared by a reflux precipitation polymerization method using N-vinylcaprolactam (VCL) and N-methylol acrylamide (NMAM) as monomers and N,N-methylenebisacrylamide (MBA) as a crosslinker were esterified using P2O5 and then chelated with Fe(ii) ions to form nanozymes with peroxidase and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity. It was found by dynamic light scattering (DLS) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) that the nanohydrogels prepared with a monomer concentration of 4% and mass ratio of 1 : 1 (VCL : NMAM) had more uniform particle size, better dispersion and a distinct temperature response. The results of Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), DLS, TEM, X-ray powder diffraction (XRD) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) indicated the successful preparation of the esterified nanohydrogel and FeCPNGs. Of particular importance is that such FeCPNGs can functionally mimic two antioxidant enzymes (peroxidase and superoxide dismutase) by UV analysis of catalytic oxidation between 3,3,5,5-tetramethylbenzidine (TMB) and H2O2 and the kit analysis of SOD-like activity.

Plasmon-activated nanozymes with enhanced catalytic activity by near-infrared light irradiation.

Nanozymes have attracted extensive attention due to their great potential as alternatives to natural enzymes. Optical control as an external stimulus has become the most attractive method because of its high spatial and temporal resolution. Under the action of excitation light, free electrons on the surface of gold nanorods (GNRs) will collectively oscillate, which is called localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR). This unique LSPR effect is promising in the application of plasmon-accelerated enzyme-like catalytic reactions. Pt-tipped gold nanorod-based nanozymes (Pt-GNRs) were synthesized by the modification of Pt nanoclusters onto the tips of GNRs. The as-prepared Pt-GNRs exhibited excellent enzyme-like catalytic activity toward hydrogen peroxide. Furthermore, it was found that the enzyme-like catalytic activity of Pt-GNRs could be notably enhanced using near-infrared (NIR) light irradiation, because of the photothermal effect and hot electron effect produced by the LSPR of GNRs. Finally, the catalytic activity and cytotoxicity of Pt-GNRs were evaluated in 4T1 cells, which further demonstrated that the Pt-GNR-based nanozymes possess great potential in cancer treatment.

Hydroxo Iron(III) Sites in a Metal-Organic Framework: Proton-Coupled Electron Transfer and Catalytic Oxidation of Alcohol with Molecular Oxygen.

Metalloenzymes are powerful biocatalysts that can catalyze particular chemical reactions with high activity, selectivity, and specificity under mild conditions. Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) composed of metal ions or metal clusters and organic ligands with defined cavities have the potential to impart enzyme-like catalytic activity and mimic metalloenzymes. Here, a new metal-organic framework implanted with hydroxo iron(III) sites with the structural and reactivity characteristics of iron-containing lipoxygenases is reported. Similar to lipoxygenases, the hydrogen atoms and electrons of the substrate can transfer to the hydroxo iron(III) sites, showing typical proton-coupled electron transfer behavior. In the reactivity mimicking biology system, similar to alcohol oxidase, the material also catalyses the oxidation of alcohol into aldehyde by using O2 with a high yield and 100% selectivity under mild conditions, without the use of a radical cocatalyst or photoexcitation. These results provide strong evidence for the high structural fidelity of enzymatically active sites in MOF materials, verifying that MOFs provide an ideal platform for designing biomimetic heterogeneous catalysts with high conversion efficiency and product selectivity.

Nanozymes: From New Concepts, Mechanisms, and Standards to Applications.

Nanozymes are nanomaterials with intrinsic enzyme-like characteristics that have been booming over the past decade because of their capability to address the limitations of natural enzymes such as low stability, high cost, and difficult storage. Along with the rapid development and ever-deepening understanding of nanoscience and nanotechnology, nanozymes hold promise to serve as direct surrogates of traditional enzymes by mimicking and further engineering the active centers of natural enzymes. In 2007, we reported the first evidence that Fe3O4 nanoparticles (NPs) have intrinsic peroxidase-mimicking activity, and since that time, hundreds of nanomaterials have been found to mimic the catalytic activity of peroxidase, oxidase, catalase, haloperoxidase, glutathione peroxidase, uricase, methane monooxygenase, hydrolase, and superoxide dismutase. Uniquely, a broad variety of nanomaterials have been reported to simultaneously exhibit dual- or multienzyme mimetic activity. For example, Fe3O4 NPs show pH-dependent peroxidase-like and catalase-like activities; Prussian blue NPs simultaneously possess peroxidase-, catalase-, and superoxide dismutase-like activity; and Mn3O4 NPs mimic all three cellular antioxidant enzymes including superoxide dismutase, catalase, and glutathione peroxidase. Taking advantage of the physiochemical properties of nanomaterials, nanozymes have shown a broad range of applications from in vitro detection to replacing specific enzymes in living systems. With the emergence of the new concept of "nanozymology", nanozymes have now become an emerging new field connecting nanotechnology and biology. Since the landmark paper on nanozymes was published in 2007, we have extensively explored their catalytic mechanism, established the corresponding standards to quantitatively determine their catalytic activities, and opened up a broad range of applications from biological detection and environmental monitoring to disease diagnosis and biomedicine development. Here we mainly focus on our progress in the systematic design and construction of functionally specific nanozymes, the standardization of nanozyme research, and the exploration of their applications for replacing natural enzymes in living systems. We also show that, by combining the unique physicochemical properties and enzyme-like catalytic activities, nanozymes can offer a variety of multifunctional platforms with a broad of applications from in vitro detection to in vivo monitoring and therapy. For instance, targeting antibody-conjugated ferromagnetic nanozymes simultaneously provide three functions: target capture, magnetic separation, and nanozyme color development for target detection. We finally will address the prospect of nanozyme research to become "nanozymology". We expect that nanozymes with unique physicochemical properties and intrinsic enzyme-mimicking catalytic properties will attract broad interest in both fundamental research and practical applications and offer new opportunities for traditional enzymology.

Bioelectrochemical evaluation of plant extracts and gold nanozyme-based sensors for total antioxidant capacity determination

The antioxidant properties of different plant extracts are usually claimed and used by food, medicine and cosmetic industry due to their health promoting capacities. In this study the presence of antioxidant compounds and the total antioxidant capacity of water-soluble extracts, prepared using two extraction methods and a variety of solvents, have been determined and a rapid screening method has been developed. Plant extracts characterisation, composition and antioxidant properties were confirmed by FTIR and Raman spectroscopies. Voltammetry, amperometry and electrochemical impedance were used to highlight the total antioxidant capacity of each extract using an electrochemical gold nanozyme-sensor based on the enzyme-like catalytic activity of gold nanoparticles. Both anodic area of cyclic voltammograms (10.31 μA V) and electrochemical index (153) calculated using differential potential voltammetry show the total content of antioxidant compounds, allowing to discriminate between different extracts. Amperometric total antioxidant capacity measurements were associated with those from classical chemiluminescence and good correlation has been found (Pearson's correlation coefficient of 0.958).

Polyfunctional Bis-Lewis-Acid-/Bis-Triazolium Catalysts for Stereoselective 1,4-Additions of 2-Oxindoles to Maleimides.

Achieving enzyme-like catalytic activity and stereoselectivity without the typically high substrate specificity of enzymes is a challenge in the development of artificial catalysts for asymmetric synthesis. Polyfunctional catalysts are considered to be a promising tool for achieving excellent catalytic efficiency. A polyfunctional catalyst system was developed, which incorporates two Lewis acidic/Brønsted basic cobalt centers in combination with triazolium moieties that are crucial for high reactivity and excellent stereoselectivity in the direct 1,4-addition of oxindoles to maleimides. The catalyst is assembled through click chemistry and is readily recyclable through precipitation by making use of its charges. Kinetic studies support a cooperative mode of action. Diastereodivergency is achievable with either Boc-protected or unprotected maleimide.

Nitro-functionalized metal-organic frameworks with catalase mimic properties for glutathione detection.

In the present study, four copper-based metal-organic frameworks were facilely prepared to study the effects of the substituent groups of the ligand on the enzyme-like properties of these frameworks. It was found that all of them were capable of catalyzing the reaction between 3,3',5,5'-tetramethylbenzidine (TMB) and H2O2; this demonstrated their enzyme-like properties. Moreover, the enzyme-like catalytic properties of all the Cu-MOFs obtained herein were studied in detail. Interestingly, the results indicate that the four Cu-MOFs should be addressed as different enzyme mimics although the chemical structures of their ligands are quite similar. Among these four MOFs, the Cu-MOF with the -NO2 group (Cu-MOF (ii)) exhibits highest catalytic activity at neutral pH, which would be beneficial for its application in real biological samples. Moreover, its catalytic activity should be ascribed to the generation of oxygen induced by Cu-MOF (ii)-catalyzed H2O2 decomposition; this accordingly indicates that this MOF should be called a catalase mimic. Under optimized conditions, the Cu-MOF (ii) was applied to develop a (GSH) colorimetric assay for glutathione (GSH). In addition, GSH detection in serum was performed, and satisfactory results were obtained. Therefore, a simple, sensitive and selective colorimetric assay based on the MOF catalase mimic for the detection of GSH was developed.

A Facile synthesis of superparamagnetic Fe3O4 nanofibers with superior peroxidase-like catalytic activity for sensitive colorimetric detection of l-cysteine

Superaramagnetic Fe3O4 nanomaterials are good candidates as enzyme mimics due to their excellent catalytic activity, high stability and facile synthesis. However, the morphology of Fe3O4 nanomaterials has much influence on their enzyme-like catalytic activity. In this work, we have developed a simple polymer-assisted thermochemical reduction approach to prepare Fe3O4 nanofibers for peroxidase-like catalytic applications. The as-prepared Fe3O4 nanofibers show a higher catalytic activity than commercial Fe3O4 nanoparticles. The steady-state kinetic assay result shows that the Michaelis–Menten constant value of the as-obtained Fe3O4 nanofibers is similar to that of horseradish peroxidase (HRP), indicating their superior affinity to the 3,3′,5,5′-tetramethylbenzidine (TMB) and H2O2 substrate. Based on the outstanding catalytic activity, a sensing platform for the detection of l-cysteine has been performed and the limit of detection is as low as 0.028 μM. In addition, an excellent selectivity toward l-cysteine over other types of amino acids, glucose and metal ions has been achieved as well. This work offers an original means for the fabrication of superparamagnetic Fe3O4 nanofibers and demonstrates their delightful potential applications in the fields of biosensing, environmental monitoring, and medical diagnostics.