Environmental Quality Objectives Research Articles

Need of accurate model prediction of variability of the concentration ratio for testing coherence among environmental quality objectives: A case study of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

Maintaining coherence among environmental quality objectives (EQOs) should be an important consideration for the EQOs to be met simultaneously. The objectives of the present work were to demonstrate the need of accurate variability prediction by models and to present considerations in selecting models for testing coherence of the EQOs. SimpleBox and POPsME were chosen as the two different types of models to compare the prediction variability and its influence on the results of coherence test among the maximum permissible concentrations (MPCs) of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in South Korea. False calls by these models on coherence were found to occur often due to inaccurate prediction of variability in the concentration ratio at steady state, strongly suggesting that models for coherence test should be accurate in predicting not only the point value representing the concentration ratio but the variability of the value. It was demonstrated that spatially resolved dynamic models would have an intrinsic advantage over one box steady state models in reducing the rate of false negative call.

Scientific derivation of environmental quality benchmarks for the protection of aquatic ecosystems: challenges and opportunities

In recent decades, the paradigm of water quality management has shifted from complete prohibition of pollutant discharge (i.e. zero tolerance) to permitting limited discharge of pollutants to receiving water bodies based on the results of a risk-based assessment approach. This approach assumes that the aquatic ecosystem is able to cope with certain levels of pollutants without harming aquatic life and the health of local communities who rely on the water body for food, drinking water and enjoyment. A risk-based approach also assumes that safe levels can be defined for pollutants that do not cause unacceptable disruptions of the structure and function of the aquatic ecosystem. This approach acknowledges the presence of uncertainty associated with the current understanding of substance-specific ecotoxicity, the behaviour of chemical mixtures in the environment, ecology of the receiving waters and the ability to measure chemical contaminants in effluents and receiving waters accurately. Furthermore, a risk-based approach acknowledges that the most serious water pollutants in terms of human health worldwide may not be man-made chemicals, but rather the pathogenic organisms originating from untreated or improperly treated human wastes. In developed countries, pollutioncontrol technologies have reduced or eliminated most of sources of pathogens in inland surface waters, thereby affording attention on other contaminants in water such as industrial chemicals, metals, and agricultural chemicals. The situation, however, is quite different in less-developed countries. In 2012, it was estimated that 37 % of the world’s population still lack adequate sanitation while 11 % of the global population could not gain access to clean drinking water (WHO 2012). From this perspective, the use of a riskbased approach that is able to focus attention on the largest water quality challenges and can confidently direct scarce financial resources to actions that will affect the largest results for protection of clean drinking water is of paramount importance. Scientists and environmental authorities are confronted with the realities facing less-developed countries, the nature of current scientific uncertainties and recognition that zero tolerance of water pollutants will likely have unacceptable economic consequences for societies striving to improve quality of life. It is self-evident, therefore, that the derivation of risk-based environmental quality guidelines, threshold values, limits, objectives and benchmarks by national regulatory authorities is gaining widespread acceptance as an appropriate foundation for national and international water quality management.

A novel passive dosing system for determining the toxicity of phenanthrene to early life stages of zebrafish

Reliable experimental early life stage chronic toxicity data for fish are limited and further data are needed for polyaromatic hydrocarbons to establish environmental quality objectives and compare with toxicity model predictions. Efforts are underway to develop a zebrafish embryo toxicity test guideline to reduce, refine and replace the use of vertebrates in animal testing. An adaptation of this method which includes embryo lethal and sub-lethal developmental endpoints after a 5-day exposure as well as larval survival and growth endpoints during a subsequent 25-day test period is described using phenanthrene as a model test substance. To deliver well controlled exposure concentrations, a passive dosing system consisting of silicone coated vials and silicone O-rings was employed. Acute results indicated that edema and spinal curvature were the most sensitive sub-lethal effects observed and in many cases preceded observed mortality. The 30-day LC/EC10 for larval survival and growth was 40 and 67μg/L respectively. Concentrations shown to cause adverse effects in this study are in the range of previous studies that have investigated the chronic effects of phenanthrene on fish. Further, results indicate that predicted water quality objectives for phenanthrene derived using the target lipid model are protective of early life stage effects on zebrafish. Based on these results the predicted water quality objectives for phenanthrene derived using the target lipid model (10μg/L) would be protective of early life stage effects on zebrafish.

Simulating the long term impact of nitrate mitigation scenarios in a pilot study basin

The agro-hydrological model TNT2 was used to explore for a period of 14 years (1987–2001) the likely consequences of mitigation scenarios on nitrate contamination of the stream water in a small agricultural catchment. The Best Management Practices (BMPs) historically designed and implemented in 1992 and two devised agricultural scenarios (catch crop (CC) implementation and a global reduction of N fertilizer) are evaluated in term of nitrate contamination in the environment. Two of the BMPs consist in implementing natural strips of Poplar and rye-grass strips (5 meters large) along stream and ditches and the third is a delay in the burial of wheat straws (from August to October). Simulations indicated that natural strips implementation would lead to a slight decrease of Nitrate Fluxes (NF) in river by respectively 3.3% and 6.6% for rye-grass and poplar strips: a benefit associated to the non fertilization of strips area. Denitrification has not been particularly disrupted in such areas. The delay in the burial of wheat straw in autumn decreases annual mineralization rate and annual plant uptake (by respectively 9 and 13kgNha−1y−1) but increases denitrification fluxes by 6kgNha−1y−1. This would lead to a slight decrease by 6% of NF in stream (equivalent to 3.3mgNO3−l−1) and an average decrease of the following sunflower yield by 27%. The global reduction of fertilization by 10% would decreased NF in stream by 13.8% (equivalent to 8mgNO3−l−1), with a global decrease by 8kgNha−1y−1 of plant uptake. The cumulative effect of BMPs and CC would have together lead to a decrease of nitrate concentration from 57.5 to 46.6mgNO3−l−1 reaching the UE environmental quality objectives (below 50mgNO3−l−1). Spring crops yield following CC would have been penalized and the decrease of NF is balanced by an increase of denitrification fluxes in the environment contributing to release of N2O, a greenhouse gas, into the atmosphere.

Water quality guidelines for chemicals: learning lessons to deliver meaningful environmental metrics

Many jurisdictions around the globe have well-developed regulatory frameworks for the derivation and implementation of water quality guidelines (WQGs) or their equivalent (e.g. environmental quality standards, criteria, objectives or limits). However, a great many more still do not have such frameworks and are looking to introduce practical methods to manage chemical exposures in aquatic ecosystems. There is a potential opportunity for learning and sharing of data and information between experts from different jurisdictions in order to deliver efficient and effective methods to manage potential aquatic risks, including the considerable reduction in the need for aquatic toxicity testing and the rapid identification of common challenges. This paper reports the outputs of an international workshop with representatives from 14 countries held in Hong Kong in December 2011. The aim of the workshop and this paper was to identify 'good practice' in the development of WQGs to deliver to a range of environmental management goals. However, it is important to broaden this consideration to cover often overlooked facets of implementable WQGs, such as demonstrable field validation (i.e. does the WQG protect what it is supposed to?), fit for purpose of monitoring frameworks (often an on-going cost) and finally how are these monitoring data used to support management decisions in a manner that is transparent and understandable to stakeholders. It is clear that regulators and the regulated community have numerous pressures and constraints on their resources. Therefore, the final section of this paper addresses potential areas of collaboration and harmonisation. Such approaches could deliver a consistent foundation from which to assess potential chemical aquatic risks, including, for example, the adoption of bioavailability-based approaches for metals, whilst reducing administrative and technical burdens in jurisdictions.

What are the impacts of reindeer/caribou (Rangifer tarandus L.) on arctic and alpine vegetation? A systematic review protocol

Abstract Background Reindeer and caribou (both belonging to the species Rangifer tarandus L.) are among the most important large herbivores in Eurasia’s and North America’s arctic, alpine and boreal zones. In Sweden, the impact of reindeer grazing on arctic and alpine vegetation has recently been re-evaluated. In the 1990s, records of grazing-related vegetation degradation helped to form a widespread perception that some mountain areas were overgrazed. However, later analyses have shown no evidence of large-scale overutilisation of reindeer ranges in the Swedish mountains. The present-day consensus is that overgrazing has been temporary and local, and that it rarely has caused permanent damage, but it is imperative to examine the scientific support for these views. Moreover, the Swedish Parliament has adopted an environmental quality objective according to which it is essential to preserve ‘a mountain landscape characterised by grazing’. No details have been given on how this goal is to be interpreted, which is another reason why the significance of reindeer grazing for arctic/alpine vegetation needs to be assessed. This protocol presents the methodology that will be used in a systematic review of the impact of reindeer herbivory in arctic and alpine ecosystems. The focus will be on Fennoscandia, but data from other parts of the range of R. tarandus will be used when deemed appropriate. Methods The review will be based on primary field studies that compare vegetation subject to different degrees of reindeer/caribou herbivory (including grazing and browsing as well as trampling). Such comparisons can be either temporal, spatial or both. The review will cover impacts of herbivory in arctic, subarctic, alpine and subalpine areas (including the forest-tundra ecotone) across the range of R. tarandus, but not in boreal forests. Relevant aspects of vegetation include cover (abundance), biomass, diversity (e.g. species richness), structure, composition (including functional groups) and productivity.

Resolving Trans-jurisdictional Water Conflicts by the Nash Bargaining Method: A Case Study in Zhangweinan Canal Basin in North China

Trans-jurisdictional conflict in both water quantity and quality is a general concern in large river basins. In this paper, the relative utility function combined with the asymmetric Nash bargaining method was established to analyze the trans-jurisdictional conflict between water quantity and water quality in the Zhangweinan Canal Basin in China. The basin was divided into four conflict stakeholders, namely, Shanxi, Hebei, Henan, and Shandong Provinces, based on administrative unit. The water usage and pollutant discharge scheme for multiple stakeholders was optimized using the established model to satisfy the environmental flow and water quality objectives at the identified conflict sections. The results indicated that the total water consumption was reduced from 4.38 × 109 m3 in 2007 to 1.97 × 109 m3, and that the allowable COD and NH3-N discharged into the river was less than 3.8 × 104 t and 4.3 × 103 t, respectively. About 81.1 % of COD and 76.1 % of NH3-N should be further reduced compared with the values in 2007.

Images of Environmental Management: Competing Metaphors in Focus Group Discussions of Swedish Environmental Quality Objectives

In managing environmental problems, several countries have chosen the management by objectives (MBO) approach. This paper investigates how focus group participants from the Swedish environmental administration used metaphors to describe the mode of organization needed to attain environmental objectives. Such analysis can shed light on how an MBO system is perceived by actors and how it works in practice. Although the Swedish government intended to stimulate broad-based cooperation among many actors, participants often saw themselves as located at a certain "level," i.e., "higher" or "lower," in the MBO system--that is, their conceptions corresponded to a traditional, hierarchical interpretation of MBO. Prepositions such as "in" and "out" contributed to feelings of inclusion and exclusion on the part of MBO actors. However, horizontal metaphors merged with vertical ones, indicating ongoing competition for the right to interpret how the system of environmental objectives should best be managed. The paper concludes that any organization applying MBO could benefit from discussing alternate ways of talking and thinking about its constituent "levels."

A new coherence test procedure of environmental quality objectives based on multi-media monitoring data and its application to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in Korea

The goal of the present study was to determine if coherence was maintained among the maximum permissible concentrations (MPCs) of 15 PAHs in air, soil, water, and sediment proposed in Korea. Coherence was tested for each of the five medium pairs (soil/air, water/air, water/soil, sediment/soil, and water/sediment) using concurrently measured data of PAHs levels in those media. The coherence test was possible in the present study under the condition that the PAHs emission occurs only in air. The sources of uncertainty for assessing coherence using the monitoring data included the strength of evidence to support the assumption of near-steady state or steady state, the choice of the confidence interval, and the monitoring data set used for the test. While subject to the uncertainties, a number of the proposed MPCs of PAHs were determined not to be coherent. This work is the first one presenting a coherence test procedure based on multimedia monitoring data and the test results of coherence among the MPCs of PAHs. The results suggest that future development of methodology is warranted to ensure the coherence among the environmental quality objectives while fulfilling the desired level of protection.

SWEDISH ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH QUESTIONNAIRE SURVEYS

Background and Aims: Environmental conditions, the general population’s experience of these, and the level of knowledge throughout the community concerning the effect of environmental factors on public health are changing at an ever increasing rate. It is therefore important to regularly update the foundation of knowledge upon which decision making processes concerning environmental measures and priorities are dependent. The periodically published environmental health reports contribute significantly to such updates. Methods: In Sweden, these reports are to a large extent based upon the National Environmental Health Surveys (MHE). The surveys have been conducted every 4th year since 1999, alternating between adults and children. The response rate has been between 60-73%. Bias in the sampling and the proportion of respondents in different groups has been adjusted for by calibration and hence, the responses are representative of the target population. The 4th is currently in progress and the invitation to respond has been sent to parents of about 80 000 children aged 6-10 months, 4, 8,12 and 16 years. The survey includes questions regarding children’s health and annoyance in relation to various environmental factors. Results: The results give an up to date describe of how the general population is exposed to risks caused by various environmental factors. Moreover, the results show differences between various sub-groups within the population, such as age, sex, and social class. Geographic differences both between but also within the different regions can be studied. Finally, time trends regarding exposures and annoyance related to various environmental factors can be followed. The surveys are also used for research purposes, and to evaluate the Swedish environmental quality objectives. Conclusions: The periodical Environmental Health survey is an extremely important source of information in decision making processes that aim to promote awareness among citizens about the risks associated with environmental factors and to reduce the risk they pose to public health.

The Norwegian plan for integrated ecosystem-based management of the marine environment in the Norwegian Sea

A White Paper on a new integrated management plan for the Norwegian Sea was launched by the Norwegian government in May 2009. Following international guidelines for ecosystem-based management, the plan provides an overall framework for managing all human activities (mainly oil and gas industry, fishing, and shipping) in the area to ensure the continued production and function of the ecosystem. The plan is based on an assessment of the present and projected future impact of human activities and of the interactions between them, taking into account deficits in current knowledge of ecosystem state and dynamics. Areas of particular value in terms of biodiversity or biological production were identified. In each of these valuable areas, any access for substantial human activity is to be carefully managed. To monitor the overall development of the Norwegian Sea, a set of indicators with associated environmental quality objectives have been selected. The approach used builds upon experience gained from the first integrated Norwegian management plan for a marine area, the Barents Sea–Lofoten region, developed in 2002–2006. Work towards a Norwegian management plan for the North Sea, including Skagerrak, was initiated in 2009.

Proximity of Field Distribution of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons to Chemical Equilibria among Air, Water, Soil, and Sediment and Its Implications to the Coherence Criteria of Environmental Quality Objectives

The proximity of PAHs distribution to the equilibrium states among air, soil, water, and bottom sediment was assessed for future risk management and coherence test among environmental quality objectives (EQOs) in these media. Concurrently measured concentration data in the four media were used. In the study areas (Seoul, Shihwa/Banwol, and Taegu), nonequilibrium states prevailed among air, soil, and water except for some light PAHs between air and water. Elevated concentration in soil particularly caused significant deviation from equilibrium between soil and other media. Coherence criteria among these media should be determined based on steady state (not equilibrium) conditions. Sediment was in or near equilibrium with soil for all PAHs, indicating that sediment quality is closely related to soil quality and that the coherence between the EQOs of the two media is required in the study areas. As the concentration ratio of individual PAHs for a given medium pair was found to vary up to 4 orders of magnitude across the study areas, a factor of 10 as a threshold criterion for incoherence is apparently too strict to apply to the national scale of Korea.

Use of explorative scenarios in environmental policy-making—Evaluation of policy instruments for management of land, water and the built environment

In order to achieve the Swedish Environmental Quality Objectives (EQOs), three action strategies have been adopted by the Swedish parliament. The strategy addressed in this paper deals with the management of land, water and the built environment. The paper reports on a project involving authorities and researchers in which policy measures required for achieving relevant targets for the strategy were gathered, structured and analysed regarding their potential assuming alternative futures. Measures with proposed policy instruments were qualitatively evaluated against one business as usual scenario and four explorative scenarios varying along two dimensions; level of governance and level of embeddedness. The results show a heavy predominance of administrative policy instruments. This policy strategy depends on a future development where such policy instruments are accepted. In order to achieve the EQOs regardless of future developments, more robust packages of measures including a larger variation in policy instruments need to be developed.

Dealing with Ignored Attributes in Choice Experiments on Valuation of Sweden’s Environmental Quality Objectives

Using a choice experiment, this paper investigates how Swedish citizens value three environmental quality objectives. In addition, a follow-up question is used to investigate whether respondents ignored any attributes when responding. The resulting information is used in model estimation by restricting the individual parameters for the ignored attributes to zero. When taking the shares of respondents who took both the environmental and the cost attributes (52–69% of the respondents) into account, then the WTP for each attribute changes if the respondents who ignored the attributes have a zero WTP. At the same time, we find evidence that not all respondents who claimed to have ignored an attribute really did. However, the most commonly ignored non-monetary attributes always have the lowest rankings in terms of WTP across all three environmental objectives. Thus, our results show that instead of ignoring attributes completely, respondents seem to put less weight on the attributes they claimed to have ignored.

Biological diversity indicators: A comparison of Swedish forest commons and other forest ownership categories

Research indicates that natural resources managed in common, resembling traditional commons such as the Swedish forest commons, could be a type of regime with the potential to stimulate successfully sustainable use conditions. This is supported by findings regarding the characteristics of Swedish forest commons, their claimed concern for the environment and relatively high proportion of old forest in two out of three regions. Swedish environmental policy is directed towards environmental quality objectives and the Sustainable Forests objective states, among other things, that biological diversity must be maintained and enhanced. Swedish National Forest Inventory data for the period 2003–2006 were used to analyse differences between forest commons in northern Sweden and other ownership categories regarding the proportion of forestland with a large deciduous element, the proportion of forest older than 80 years with a large (> 25%) deciduous element, the volume of dead wood and the proportion of forest older than 140 years, parameters corresponding to the interim targets for enhanced biological diversity. The results show no consistent differences in indicator variables between the forest commons and other ownership categories, signifying that forests managed in common have been conducted in ways promoting biodiversity more effectively than in other ownership categories. Further studies of different ownership categories regarding driving forces and forest status are warranted.

SWEDISH ACTION PROGRAMME FOR REDUCING PLANT NUTRIENT LOSSES FROM AGRICULTURE

In 1988, the Swedish Parliament decided on a special action programme for improving the environmental performance of agriculture. This was a result of the attention that problems with eutrophication attracted. At that time, the measures in the action programme mostly concerned areas with intensive agriculture and coastal areas. They focused on adapting plant nutrient supply to its specific need, on limiting pollution and on increasing the share of land under green cover in winter. The action programme has since been expanded to include measures for reducing ammonia losses from agriculture as well, and it has been revised and updated twice. The agricultural measures based on the action programme contribute both to reach the goals decided in Sweden, like the environmental quality objectives, and to reach international agreements and directives.

Relationship of pyrogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons contamination among environmental solid media

This study compared the contamination levels and compositional characteristics of PAHs in soil, SS and sediment to understand the cross media characteristics among the three solid media and ecological risk implications for the purpose to help manage in a more integrated manner the environmental quality objectives or the ecological risk in the media. The study area included urban (metropolis and industrial zone), suburban and rural sites. Seasonal samples were concurrently collected in surface soils, surface waters (dissolved and suspended solid (SS) phases separately) and sediments. The emission estimate and source characterizing PAH indices consistently indicated that PAHs were from pyrogenic sources. The level of total PAHs in soil declined along the wind direction from the urban areas to the rural areas. The sorption power of soil appeared distinctly different between the urban and rural areas. The contamination levels and PAH profiles in soil and sediment were closely related to each other while no such correlation was observed between SS and sediment or SS and soil. Comparisons of the observed partitioning coefficients with three different partitioning equilibrium models strongly suggested that PAHs in water appeared to undergo partitioning among the dissolved phase in water, dissolved organic matter, and organic and soot carbons in SS, which might account for the level and profile of PAHs in SS that were not correlated with those in soil or sediment. The observed results suggested that PAHs of pyrogenic origins entered into soil, sediment, and water by the atmospheric deposition and subsequent other cross-media transfers of PAHs. The results also evidenced that sediments were principally contaminated with PAHs delivered via surface run-off from soil although in the urban areas the run-off influence appeared less immediate than in the rural areas. Environmental quality objectives for PAHs in soil and sediment should be set in a coherent manner and the protection efforts for the sediment quality should be made with the consideration of the soil quality particularly where the river bottom sediment is renewed periodically with eroded soil due to heavy rain and/or large river regime coefficient. In spite of the difference in PAH profiles among the three solid media, BaP commonly appeared to present the greatest TEQ, suggesting that strict regulation of BaP is necessary to efficiently and substantially minimize the total risk of the environmental PAHs.

Communicative challenges in assessing progress towards environmental quality objectives

Assessment of trends in the state of the environment constitutes one important aspect of efforts to achieve environmental sustainability. Assessments are often undertaken via indicators which measure progress towards environmental objectives and interim targets. This paper starts from the assumption that different types of environmental indicators have different implications for the public communication and the societal dialogue about the state of the environment and the measures needed to increase ecological sustainability. The paper concludes that it is important to evaluate environmental indicators on the basis of their communicative potential. It is demonstrated how science-based assessment of progress towards environmental objectives may fulfil different aims. Each of these aims may be linked to particular types of indicators, as well as to particular ideas of how to communicate uncertainties, and to particular views of the role of the public in the system of environmental objectives.

Communicating Uncertainty: Models of Communication and the Role of Science in Assessing Progress towards Environmental Objectives

This paper is an exploratory study analysing the communication models underlying Swedish civil servants' and scientists' views of how to communicate uncertainty related to progress towards public environmental quality objectives. Their lines of reasoning are illustrated by quotations from in-depth and focus group interviews. Two communication models are discussed: the separation model, in which experts discuss uncertainties among themselves and subsequently present a clear-cut message to practitioners and politicians, and the integration model, in which policy makers and civil servants take part in discussions about how to interpret and handle the uncertainties involved. The paper identifies the importance of acknowledging the existence of uncertainty and of consciously reflecting on what communication model to use in communicating goal achievement. It also emphasizes the need for further discussion of the consequences of each communication model. Moreover, the paper highlights a need for further research into the sense-making processes occurring as actors in the policy and practitioner arenas interpret expert messages. Finally, it is argued that the integration model for communicating uncertainties could be used to encourage reflection and learning within and across societal sectors.

Environmental Integration and Policy Implementation: Competing Governance Modes in Waste Management Decision Making

Research into environmental policy integration (EPI) has focused very much on coordination issues associated with the preparation of policies at national and international levels. We instead examine some challenges in implementing EPI at the local level. We look at legal and policy frameworks relating to environmental governance and actual waste management decision making in five Swedish cities. We observe an implementation gap between the high-level policy ambitions relating to environmental governance of the waste sector, as expressed in national policy frameworks, and the local-level decision-making procedures and outcomes. Several discrepancies are identified: between national waste policy and the local decision premises, between local waste planning and project decision making, between knowledge gathering and project decision making, and between the legal mechanism in the development consent process and the national environmental quality objectives framework. Our study indicates that the governance frameworks at different levels are quite different, and at least partly incompatible, which causes important coordination problems across levels. Sectoral developments towards an industrial marketisation of waste have rendered frameworks such as local waste plans obsolete. We also find that the more traditional and coercive forms of governing the sector, such as consent, bans, and taxes, are the ones that have steering power, whereas new procedures, such as management by objectives, lack sufficient institutional and cognitive support structures to be effective.