Environmental Policy Measures Research Articles

Brazil's Electric Power Choices and Their Corresponding Carbon Emissions Implications

This study analyzes the options for meeting power demand in the Brazilianpower sector through the year 2015. Three policy cases are constructedto test economic and environmental policy measures against a baseline:advanced technologies scenario, environmental control scenario and carbon(C) elimination scenario. Least-cost modeling simulated these scenarios throughchanges in emissions fees and caps, costs for advanced technologies,demand side efficiency, and clean energy supplies. Results show that, in theabsence of alternative policies, new additions to Brazil's electric powersector will shift rapidly from hydroelectricity to combined-cycle natural gasplants. When the cost of environmental impacts are incorporated in theprice of power, the least-cost mix of electric power generation technologycould change in other ways. In all scenarios, energy efficiency andcogeneration play an important role in the least-cost power solution. Savingelectricity through increased efficiency offsets the needs for new supply andhas enormous potential in Brazil's industrial sector. Efficiency also reducesthe environmental burden associated with electricity production andtransmission, without compromising the quality of the services demandedby end users. Interesting enough, carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions will remainrelatively low under almost every conceivable scenario.

Environmental and Economic Effects of a Fall in Cereal Prices in the EU Internal Market: the Case of Denmark

Reform of the EuropeanCommon Agricultural Policy (the CAP) willreduce cereal prices in the Internal Marketwhile simultaneously increasing direct supportto farmers (Agenda 2000). This paper examinesthe possible effects of liberalisation of theCAP by modelling the effects of a 10 per centreduction in cereal prices combined withcompensation to farmers. We applied anintegrated modelling system suitable forestimating both the economic and environmentalconsequences of agricultural and environmentalpolicy measures and calculated the effects of a10 per cent fall in cereal prices on nitrogenloading of the Danish marine waters, on privateconsumption, GDP, the balance of payments, andemployment. The results indicate that pricereductions do not have significant effects onnitrogen loading relative to the 50 per centreduction target, since a 10 per cent reductionin cereal prices only leads to a 2.4 per centreduction in loading.

A Study on Optimal Environmental Policy Measures Related to the Introduction of New Technologies to Improve the Water Quality of Lake Kasumigaura

The quality of water in Lake Kasumigaura has been deteriorating since the 1970's by the pollution discharged from socio-economic activities of the catchment area. As a result of construction of a sewage system, and enaction of an ordinance to prevent the environment by the government, water quality of Lake Kasumigaura has improved to some extent, but the process of deteriorating is still continuing. Recently, many engineering groups are working to develop technologies in order to solve the problem.In this study, we analyze a dynamic optimal policy and evaluate new technologies to improve the water quality of the lake, considering both-the total ecological system in and around the lake and the situational changes over a certain period of time.We specify two sub-models (the ecosystem model and the socio-economic model) and one objective function (Regional GDP; GRP) in order to analyze the optimal policy to improve the water quality of Lake Kasumigaura. The ecosystem model describes how the amount of generation and flow of pollutants are changed and the extent to which it is abated by removal equipments in the lake and the rivers. The socio-economic model describes the social and economic activities in the catchment area and the relationship between the activities and the emission of pollutants. The optimal policies are derived so as to maximize the objective function subject to the structural equations which describe both the ecosystem and socio-economic system.The pollutants measured in this study are nitrogen, phosphorus and COD. These have been strongly affecting the deterioration of water quality.

Brownfield Redevelopment versus Greenfield Development: A Private Sector Perspective on the Costs and Risks Associated with Brownfield Redevelopment in the Greater Toronto Area

This paper examines the nature of the economic costs and risks involved in brownfield versus greenfield redevelopment in the Greater Toronto Area (Ontario, Canada) from a private sector perspective, and assesses the potential effectiveness of different policies and programmes designed to attenuate associated costs and risks. Through interviews, case-studies and an analysis of hypothetical development scenarios, it has been found that the perception that brownfield redevelopment is less cost-effective and entails greater risks than greenfield development, on the part of the private sector, is true for industrial projects in the province, but not for residential ones, which were found to be feasible, given the assumptions of the present study. Furthermore, the study has found that the attractiveness of residential brownfield projects can increase considerably with minor policy changes, but that promoting industrial redevelopment will require a more vigorous approach that employs a variety of environmental policy and economic development measures.

Stimulating Innovation in Green Technology

Developing a sustainable form of industry based on green technology will require radical technological innovation by the private sector. Stimulating innovation in green technology through public policy requires an understanding of technology, the innovation process, and how policy affects innovation of firms. This article explores how to design public policy measures to stimulate green technology innovation. The potential of current environmental policy measures to stimulate green technology innovation is assessed. Opportunities are identified to improve our understanding of the innovation process, to use policy mechanisms to more effectively stimulate green technology development, and to direct the trajectories of key environmental technologies.

Environmental Policy, Monitoring, and Protective Measures

Environmental Policy, Monitoring, and Protective Measures

A Comparative Study on the History of Environmental Problems in Japan, Korea, and China

This paper attempts to review the history of economic development, environmental changes and policy responses to cope with the problems since the 1960s in the three East Asian countries: Japan, Korea and China. According to the DPSER (Driving force-Pressure-State-Effect-Response) analysis framework, relevant indicators are collected and compared, and then the similarities and differences among the three countries in the causes and mechanisms of environmental changes are discussed. Special focus is given to the comparison of such factors as the industrial development and structural changes, air and water pollution in cities, environmental damages, and the improvement of urban infrastructures. The uniqueness of the causes and environmental policy measures in each country is also discussed.

Environmental regulation and the industrial sector in China: the role of informal relationships in policy implementation

This paper focuses on the relationship between environmental regulators and industrial enterprises in China. There are widely recognized ‘implementation gaps’ in the Chinese environmental protection system. Previous studies have attributed such gaps to a combination of factors including legislative shortcomings, poorly designed policy instruments, an unsupportive work environment for environmental regulators, and a pro-growth political and social environment. The present paper seeks to extend the analysis by examining the role of informal relationships between individuals and organizations, and their mediating influence on the implementation of environmental policy measures. We argue that such relationships, which reflect a cultural predisposition to harmony and consensus-building among key actors, play an important role in determining how environmental policies are implemented, and how stringently regulations are enforced at the local level. Given the importance of decentralized implementation responsibilities in China, weaknesses in the system at the local level can constrain the achievement of national environmental policy objectives. A model of the implementation process is presented, and case studies from the industrial city of Foshan in Guangdong Province are used to illustrate the role played by personal and organizational relationships (guanxi) among environmental regulators and industrial polluters. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd and ERP Environment.

The Environmental Outcome of Emissions-intensive Economic Growth: A Critical Look at Official Growth Projections for Sweden up to the Year 2000

Implications for carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides emissions from the Swedish government's medium-term economic projections are assessed, considering Sweden's environmental goals. Data from the first environmental accounting matrix of Sweden are exploited within the framework of the interindustry model to give emission multipliers for various components of aggregate demand. In view of these emission multipliers, it is evident that the outlined macro-economic development does not conform with Sweden's environmental goals. The oil price and the structural changes assumed in the economic projections stress still further the need for strong environmental policy measures to attain the emission goals. The allocation of total expenditure is shown here to be a critical factor for bringing down the emissions to accepted levels.

Environmental Financing in European Economies in Transition

The paper offers a perspective on environmental predicament of economies in transition. Emphasis is put on how these economies finance their environmental needs. It is observed that the demand for environmental financing can be affected both by environmental policy measures (such as internalization of externalities) and by other factors (such as the softness of budget constraints faced by firms). The role of subsidies – in many countries of the Central and Eastern European region provided through special purpose ‘environmental funds’ – is then scrutinized. In particular the question is asked whether such funds crowd out commercial capital from the market. Conditions are discussed that would allow the funds to play their constructive environmental roles without crowding out private financing.

Analysis of environmental policy measures aimed at reducing nitrogen leaching at the farm level

Environmental policy measures aimed at reducing nitrogen leaching from the root zone are analysed using farm-level models representing typical Danish crop farms and livestock holdings, the objective being to indicate the cost-effectiveness of the measures compared to a baseline scenario (1995). The cost-effectiveness of the measures is expressed as costs (i.e. changes in producers surplus) per kg reduction in N leaching, and the reductions in nitrogen leaching levels from the measures are compared with the official targets of 49% reductions. The modelled effects of levies are presented, and the results indicate that the imposition of levies on commercial nitrogen fertilizer will provide incentives for reduced fertilization and for substitution of commercial nitrogen fertilizer with livestock manure. Levies will also entail the risk of unintended and adverse effects, however, as crop selection can be influenced. These negative effects can be reduced by supplementing levies with a requirement to undersow catch crops in spring-sown cereals and legumes.

The paradoxes of environmental policy in Eastern Europe: The dynamics of policy‐making in the Czech republic

The environmental policy process in post‐communist central Europe currently appears a paradoxical one: on the one hand the domestic political pressures for action over environmental problems have declined, but at the same time several states in the region continue to adopt tough environmental regulations. This can be explained by four sets of factors. First, pressure group politics is weak, which prevents industrial lobbies from obstructing environmental policy measures; secondly, by the influence of compact environmental policy networks; thirdly, by the dynamics of competition within coalition governments; and fourthly, by systemic influences upon national states emanating from the international system. The last factor is the most decisive of the four. The recent history of environmental policy‐making in the Czech Republic provides a clear example of vigorous environmental policy‐making under politically unfavourable circumstances and demonstrates the influence of all of these factors. There may be futur...

Environmental policy and interest groups in developing countries

As the debate over the structural adjustment policies of the 1980s showed, the success of government policies in developing countries is also partly determined by the activities of a variety of interest groups. The same is also likely to apply to environmental policy. This article looks into the ways in which the efficiency of environmental policy measures is influenced by the activities of such interest groups.

Product‐oriented environmental policy in Europe

AbstractOver the last few years the environmental policy programmes which have been formulated in the Member States of the European Union (EU) have increasingly addressed the environmental relevance of products. Whilst prohibitions and restrictions were often used instruments in the past, products are now becoming subject to eco‐taxes and charges, they are labelled and their life‐cycle is assessed ‐ all for the sake of an improvement of their environmental performance. However, the development of product‐related environmental policy measures varies greatly within the EU. This article outlines the findings of a study undertaken with the financial support of the EU in which different product policies are inventorised and compared.

Controlling substance flows: The case of chlorine

The contribution of chlorinated hydrocarbons (CHCs) to environmental problems in the Netherlands is discussed in an economic context. The economic interactions within the chlorine market, including the link to caustic soda production, are described, and PVC is taken as a case study. Key policy options are evaluated in terms of their potential for environmental improvement. It appears that 95% of CHC emissions causing environmental problems are due to dissipative applications. With respect to the specific problems of ozone depletion and global warming, only a small group of compounds is responsible for most of the impact. Moreover, economic interactions within the group of CHCs can strongly influence the net effect of environmental policy measures. Policies aimed at a reducing volume output of certain specific groups of CHCs will inevitably lead to trade-offs between environmental problems. The environmental impact of a hypothetical ban on CHCs is discussed in relation to the use of PVC as a sink for chlorine. Both these options appear to have drawbacks. Moreover, no absolute conclusion can be drawn until the environmental impact of CHC substitutes is known.

Policies to reduce nitrogen surplus in German agriculture

The article focuses on a concept for the creation and evaluation of environmental policy measures. Based on this concept two policy strategies which aim to reduce nitrogen emission from agriculture for spatial resource protection are developed. The strategies are firstly an EU-wide limitation of nitrogen balance surpluses per hectare, and secondly an increase in mineral fertilizer prices plus regional livestock unit limitation. Because of its low costs of administration and control, the authors favour an early introduction of the component ‘regional livestock unit limitation’. If the impacts of this measure do not lead to a sufficient reduction of nitrogen emissions an ‘increase in mineral fertilizer prices’ should be added.

Demand for durable and nondurable goods, environmental policy and consumer welfare

AbstractIf a tax on energy affects the demand for a nondurable good, the stock of a durable good, and the proportion of the energy consumption per unit of service of the durable good, an integrated approach for investigating consumer demand for durables and nondurables is required. The purpose of this paper is to employ the concept of a variable expenditure function with quasi‐fixed durable goods as arguments in order to derive a demand system for nondurable goods in prices of the nondurables, in the stocks of durables, and in variable expenditure. From the envelope condition desired stocks of durables can be calculated and investment demand for durables can be determined. For an application we choose a variable expenditure function based on the almost ideal demand specification, and evaluate alternative environmental policy measures using the equivalent variation for comparing the welfare effects.

Environmental Legislation and the Locational Process

The National Environmental Policy Act of 1970 was a response to concern about environmental deterioration. Much state legislation duplicated provisions about information disclosure in environmental impact statements and about the use of open hearings in the approval process. Successful location of many projects now depends on public acceptance and citizen influence on permitting agencies. Environmental protection remains a nationwide concern, a situation that may be the most important legacy of the federal and state policy legislation. SYMBOLICALLY enacted on 1 January 1970, the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) has been described as the most important and farreaching environmental legislation ever passed by Congress.! The act heralded a decade of legislation designed to control society-induced environmental degradation. During the 1970s Congress passed more than twenty environmental laws or amendments, and more than half of the states enacted environmental-policy measures. The legislators were reflecting the views and pressures of their constituents, but the reasons for the emergence of a nationwide concern for the environment in the late 1960s and throughout the 1970s are not clear. Perhaps increased affluence combined with additional leisure time was a contributing factor. Evidence also suggests that an increasing number of Americans used their additional leisure time in environmentally related activities.2 Among the factors that were instrumental in arousing environmental consciousness were numerous episodes of pollution that occurred in the 1960s and 1970s. Several incidents posed serious health hazards and contributed to the heightened public concern over their sources.3 As exemplified by the fire on the Cuyahoga River in 1969, many events were incredulous, underscoring public perception that environmental degradation was preceding at an alarming rate.4 Public-opinion polls have documented strong support for environmental protection, but the nationwide concern for the environment peaked in 1970. Pollution ranked as the second-most important issue in the country, and most respondents considered the condition of the environment to be a crisis 1 Nicholas C. Yost, NEPA's Progeny: State Environmental Policy Acts, Environmental Law Reporter 3 (1974): 50090-50098; H. Paul Friesema and Paul J. Culhane, Social Impacts, Politics, and the Environmental Impact Statement Process, Natural Resources Journal 16 (1976): 339-356. 2 Tenth Annual Report of the Council on Environmental Quality, Council on Environmental Quality, Washington, D.C., 1979, 4. 3Gilbert F. White, Environment, Science 209 (1980): 183-190. 4Plain Dealer (Cleveland), 23 June 1969. * DR. SOUTH is an associate professor of geography at the University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio 45221. This content downloaded from 157.55.39.78 on Mon, 20 Jun 2016 07:25:52 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION 21 situation.5 Congressional response was a search for appropriate legislation to establish a federal environmental policy. Of the approximately forty bills or resolutions about the environment introduced in the 91st Congress, one bill, which contained both a declaration of policy and enforceable provisions, eventually emerged as the National Environmental Policy Act of 1970.6 A sweeping and somewhat ambiguous statement of federal policy, NEPA was antecedent for specific environmental legislation aimed at controlling individual sources of pollution and was replicated in many states. This article reviews NEPA and its progeny by focusing on the effects of environmental policy on the locational process. The study demonstrates that environmental-policy acts have important implications for successful siting of many proposed facilities. However, the implications are not simply varied sets of requirements and procedures; instead the acts have interjected exogenous, nontraditional factors into the locational process. Public concern about environmental deterioration was instrumental in enactment and implementation of NEPA, and public influence has now emerged as the final arbitrator for the location of a variety of proposed facilities.