Environmental Research Research Articles

Pollution resistance and removal efficiency of mesophytic plants of polluted water bodies

With the development of cities and economic growth, the eutrophication of urban park landscape water has become a hot topic in environmental governance and research at home and abroad. Using indoor water pollution simulation experiments, the decontamination and pollution resistance performance of six aquatic plants were studied. The research results found that all six aquatic plants can reduce the pH value of eutrophic water bodies. The pH of the Lythrum salicaria L. (Q) and Iris tectorum Maxim (Y) treatment systems was the lowest which are 7.34 and 7.48, respectively. They were significantly lower than the control group (CK). The content of nitrogen and phosphorus elements were reduced by six types of plants in the wastewater. After the completion of the experiment, the total nitrogen (TN) removal efficiency of Y was as high as 66.2%, and its content decreased from 9.49 to 3.21 mg/l. The removal rates of total phosphorus (TP) by six types of plants ranged from 59.1 to 81.3% and they were significantly higher than the CK. Among them, the removal rate of TP in wastewater by Y treatment exceeded 80%, which is superior to other plants and significantly different from CK. After the completion of the experiment, the content of chlorophyll a (chl a) in the water treated with Y was the lowest (6.6 mg/l). It was significantly lower than the other treatments (P<0.05). The contents of chl a in Y decreased by 37.1% compared to the initial level. Compared to CK, it is 54.1% lower and the content of chl a in CK showed an increasing trend with time delay. Overall analysis shows that the microsystems formed by the six plants all have a certain improvement effect on water quality, effectively inhibiting the proliferation of algae in eutrophic water bodies. Among them, planting iris has the best effect. Bangladesh J. Bot. 53(3): 757-763, 2024 (September) Special

AI Applications for Nutrition and Food Security Research

Data analytics (DA) and artificial intelligence (AI) play increasingly vital roles in food, nutrition, environment, and public health research and practice. With the continued successful development, professionals in these fields could rely on data analytics and AI for tasks such as data collection, decision-making, and policy development. Proficiency in research methods, statistical analysis, and ethical considerations is crucial. As AI applications grow in complexity, it is essential for professionals and the public to embrace and regulate them effectively. This review outlines AI’s diverse applications in nutrition research, including data analysis, prediction, personalized recommendations, and food safety monitoring. Select illustrative examples demonstrate its potential across various domains and highlight common challenges. The narrative underscores the importance of integrating data science and AI competencies into graduate education to equip the modern workforce.

The Evolution of Educating for Sustainable Development in East Asia: A Bibliometric Review, 1991–2023

This systematic review addressed the need for documentation and analysis of the scope and topical foci of research on education for sustainable development (ESD) in East Asia. The review used descriptive, content, and keyword co-occurrence analyses to synthesize features of 1915 Scopus-indexed journal articles published between 1991 and 2023. The authors found that research interest in ESD in East Asia has grown rapidly, accelerated by the pronouncement of the United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development in 2005 and the Sustainability Agenda 2030 in 2015. Researchers in China, Malaysia, Japan, South Korea, Indonesia, and Thailand have been the leading contributors to this regional knowledge base. Consistent with global ESD reviews, content analysis revealed that this literature emerged from studies of environmental education and gradually expanded to include sociocultural, economic, and integrated perspectives on sustainability. Keyword co-occurrence analysis revealed three thematic clusters: Environmental Sustainability in Education, Social Sustainability in Education, and Teaching and Learning for Sustainability. Temporal co-word analysis highlighted the research front, which includes environmental research focusing on carbon/energy issues, technology-enhanced learning for sustainability, empirical research methods for studying ESD, and, to a lesser degree, studies of the economic pillar of sustainability in education. Recommendations are offered for future research.

Rh-Chamber: A Novel Chamber Design for Gas Sampling in the Coastal Sediment and Water Surface

This research aims to develop and test Rh-Chamber, an innovative gas sampling tool designed for coastal environments. The coastal environment is a dynamic ecosystem that plays an important role in the global biogeochemical cycle, especially in the production and release of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O). Until now, existing gas sampling methods have limitations, especially in maintaining representative field conditions and capturing temporal dynamics of gas release. The Rh-Chamber comes as a highly flexible solution, allowing sampling both on coastal sediments and on the water surface. The design consists of a gas incubator, a float and a ballast, which allows the appliance to function optimally in various current and sediment conditions. Gas sampling is done manually using syiringe, with varying time intervals. The results show that Rh-Chamber provides better accuracy in measuring gas flux in coastal ecosystems than conventional methods. These innovations also have the potential to be used in climate change research, especially to evaluate the contribution of coastal ecosystems to greenhouse gas emissions. Although there are some limitations, such as the need for additional manpower in its operation in deeper waters, the Rh-Chamber makes a significant contribution to coastal environmental research.

Level of Gamification Instruction in Language, Literacy, and Communication Domains for Kindergarten

This study aimed to assess the level of gamification instruction in language, literacy, and communication domains for kindergarten, in private schools, in a highly urbanized city in Central Philippines during the school year 2023-2024. Data for this descriptive study was collected from 34 kindergarten teachers using a self-made data-gathering instrument that underwent a stringent validity and reliability test with scores of 4.51 and 0.848, respectively. The results reveal that teachers’ level of gamification instruction was generally very high. Subsequent analysis indicated no significant difference in the level of gamification instruction in auditory perception and discrimination, oral language, alphabet knowledge, and study skills when grouped by age, area of concentration, length of service, and number of trainings attended. Meanwhile, a significant difference was observed in auditory perception and discrimination, visual perception discrimination, alphabet knowledge, and study skills when grouped by highest educational attainment. Likewise, there was a significant difference in visual perception and discrimination when grouped by highest educational attainment and length of service. Hence, this study recommends professional development for younger teachers, tailored gamified activities pieces of training, and the creation of a climate conducive to learning in the research environment. Keywords: Gamification Instruction, Language, Literacy, Communication, Kindergarten

Cultivating Environmental Ignorance: Non-Circulation of Ethnomedicinal Knowledge about Culén (Otholobium glandulosum) in the Atlantic World (1646–1810)

A growing body of literature recognises the importance of exploring the uses of plants in historical written sources. The Chilean native plant culén (Otholobium glandulosum) has a long history of medicinal use, with various parts of the plant, including its leaves, aerial parts, and roots, employed to treat numerous ailments. This study undertakes a Critical Discourse Analysis of historical sources, specifically books published between the 17th and early 19th centuries (1646–1810), focusing on the medicinal applications of culén. The research highlights the circulation of plant knowledge over time by adopting an interdisciplinary approach that bridges historical ethnobotany, environmental history, and the history of knowledge and ignorance studies. The study reveals how the evolution of the ethnobotanical and ethnomedicinal knowledge of culén reflects the broader environmental ignorance, wherein the scientific community excluded and oppressed the indigenous and local knowledge of the plant. This work underscores the importance of integrating historical studies into modern environmental and botanical research, emphasising the value of understanding past knowledge systems to inform contemporary conservation efforts and sustainable practices.

Affordable and Reliable RP-HPLC Method for Verapamil Hydrochloride Quantification in Rabbit Plasma for Pharmacokinetics

Background: Existing bioanalytical methods for verapamil hydrochloride (VH) are often complex, requiring advanced instrumentation and specialized expertise, which limits their use in resource-constrained laboratories. Aim: The goal of this study is to fill this gap by developing a simplified, robust RP-HPLC-UV approach for the estimation of verapamil hydrochloride in rabbit plasma. Designed to enhance accuracy and precision while minimizing sample preparation challenges, this method addresses existing limitations by providing an affordable and reliable alternative for laboratories lacking sophisticated instrumentation. Methods: The bioanalytical method was implemented on C-18 stationary phase (5 μ, 250 × 4.6 mm) using acetonitrile/0.1% tetrahydrofuran (THF) in water (80:20, in volume) as the liquid system at a 1 mL/min flow speed, employing carvedilol as an internal standard. Results: The reported retention times of verapamil hydrochloride and carvedilol were ~7.64 and 4.69 min, respectively, at sufficiently high system suitability standards. The linearity of the bioanalytical approach can be seen between 0.025 and 5.0 µg/mL (r2 = 0.9991). The findings indicated that there was no matrix influence in terms of accuracy (≥98.96 ± 2.68%), intra- and inter-day precision (≤3.68%), recovery (101.98 ± 2.76%), and procedure efficiency (100.65 ± 1.82%). Benchtop, long-term, and short-term stability investigations all revealed that the verapamil hydrochloride in the bio-samples was stable. The pharmacokinetic parameters (Cmax—3.47 µg/mL; Tmax—1.59 h) were studied from time-dependent plasma concentrations of verapamil hydrochloride estimated after 40 mg oral dosing in New Zealand white rabbits. Conclusions: The developed bioanalytical method provided easier quantitative analysis of verapamil hydrochloride from rabbit plasma and was effectively used in a pharmacokinetic investigation of an oral bolus. The reliable performance of this method under practical conditions positions it as a crucial tool for advancing pharmacokinetic studies across various research environments.

Does government-driven infrastructure boost green innovation? Evidence of new infrastructure plan in China

The role of government-driven investment in improving environmental quality has long been an essential concern of environmental research. Using a spatial difference-in-differences model, this study investigates the influence of government-driven new infrastructure investment on green innovation. Based on a panel dataset of 276 Chinese cities from 2005 to 2019, we find a positive effect of high-speed rail (HSR) and smart city (SC) construction on green innovation. Compared with cities that are unconnected to the HSR network, those that are accessible by HSR experienced a 20.6 % increase in per capita green patents. In addition, being a SC planned by the government is associated with 14.8 % more green patents per capita than other cities. Moreover, government-promoted new infrastructure has significant spatial spillover effects on green innovation in adjacent cities. Regional sensitivity is found in promotional and spatial spillover effects. The findings of our study offer essential insights for developing effective policies for advancing infrastructure modernization and environmental protection simultaneously.

Gender diversity and research productivity in accounting and finance at Australian and New Zealand HEIs

ABSTRACT This study has two main objectives. First, it refreshes investigations into research productivity within the accounting and finance domains across Australian and New Zealand higher education institutions from 2011 to 2022. Second, it reflects on affirmative action in Australia, arguing that its impact on women's experiences should extend beyond mere numerical measures. Analysing 48 top journals reveals a steady increase in research output with notable contributions from the University of New South Wales, Monash University, the University of Sydney, the University of Melbourne, and the University of Queensland. Authors with five or more publications rank in the top 5%, highlighting the difficulty of achieving prolific publishing. Significantly, gender diversity improved, with female authorship rising from 19.27% to 31.73%, indicating a shift towards more inclusive research environments. However, a persistent gender gap among highly published authors suggests ongoing challenges. The study also examines job mobility among top contributors, offering insights into career progression within the academic community. Overall, the findings provide new insights into research productivity, the impact of affirmative action on gender diversity, and career mobility within the academic field of accounting and finance..

Photobiomodulation effects on neuronal transdifferentiation of immortalized adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells

Adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells (ADMSCs) possess the ability to transform into various cell types, including neurons. It has been proposed that the optimization of this transformation can be achieved by using photobiomodulation (PBM). The objective of this laboratory-based investigation was to induce the transformation of immortalized ADMSCs (iADMSCs) into neurons with chemical triggers and then evaluate the supportive effects of PBM at two different wavelengths, 525 nm and 825 nm, each administered at a dose of 5 J/cm2, as well as the combined application of these wavelengths. The results revealed that the treated cells retained their stem cell characteristics, although the cells exposed to the green laser exhibited a reduction in the CD44 marker. Furthermore, early, and late neuronal markers were identified using flow cytometry analysis. The biochemical analysis included the assessment of cell morphology, viability, cell proliferation, potential cytotoxicity, and the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). The findings of this study indicate that PBM does not harm the differentiation process and may even enhance it, but it necessitates a longer incubation period in the induction medium. These research findings contribute to the validation of stem cell technology for potential applications in in vivo, pre-clinical, and clinical research environments.

Indigenous communities, collectives and organizations advancing decolonizing methodologies: perspectives from British Columbia Network Environment for Indigenous Health Research in Canada

PurposeThe British Columbia Network Environment for Indigenous Health Research (BC NEIHR) aims to support and advance research leadership among Indigenous communities, collectives and organizations (ICCOs) within British Columbia, Canada. The BC NEIHR provides support and funding to ICCOs for research development and knowledge sharing. This funding model supports ICCOs' self-determined health research by providing funds that are fully controlled by ICCOs, without the requirement of a non-Indigenous host organization.Design/methodology/approachWe conducted a critical analysis of 35 ICCO research development and knowledge-sharing grant applications to identify how ICCOs are decolonizing research and methodologies.FindingsSix themes were identified from ICCO decolonizing methodologies: (1) identified, driven, and led by Indigenous Peoples and community; (2) guidance from advisors, ethical guidelines, and local protocols; (3) follow traditional and cultural practices; (4) determine what is knowledge and ways to share knowledge; (5) celebrating the sharing and returning of knowledge and (6) advancing relationality: building and strengthening relationships.Originality/valueThis paper highlights the impact of how the BC NEIHR and ICCOs are advancing decolonizing methodologies to support self-determined Indigenous health research led by, and grounded in, Indigenous communities. It reflects on the work of Maori scholar Linda Tuhiwai Smith’s Decolonizing Methodologies: Research and Indigenous Peoples and contributes to the literature of decolonizing methodologies.

The Effect of Environmental Social Governance, Research and Development, Intellectual Capital, and Leverage on Firm Value

The Effect of Environmental Social Governance, Research and Development, Intellectual Capital, and Leverage on Firm Value

The role of institutional ethics committees in Austria : Report of the Commission on Ethics and Scientific Integrity of the Karl Landsteiner University of Health Sciences 2018-2023.

Research involving human subjects or identifiable human material and data must be assessed by an ethics committee. The Karl Landsteiner University of Health Sciences has established a Commission on Ethics and Scientific Integrity to evaluate medical research conducted by its faculty and students and at its affiliated hospitals.All projects submitted to the Commission on Ethics and Scientific Integrity between 2018 and 2023 were analyzed regarding their major characteristics, the duration of the evaluation process, and votes issued.A total of 520 applications were electronically submitted during the observation period. Most of the studies were retrospective data analyses in the field of oncology, psychology and surgery. Most studies included less than 100 volunteers. Of the applications 50% received afinal vote within 5months, during which several revision rounds took place. Overall, about 77% of votes issued during the observation period were positive and 2% were rejections. In 11% files were closed due to withdrawal. In 11% final votes were pending at the end of the observation period due to requests for revisions.Our results emphasize the importance of institutional ethics committees using the example of the Commission on Ethics and Scientific Integrity at the Karl Landsteiner University. Such committees fill agap in evaluating research not covered by Austrian legal regulations. Continuous development of standards, operating procedures, and national and international collaborations are required to assess and minimize risks to trial subjects and to provide asafe and productive environment for research in human medicine and related fields.

Perceived employability of international doctoral students in the UK: applying Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory

ABSTRACT The quality of the UK’s doctorate training system plays a fundamental role in fostering vibrant research outputs and attracting global talent. However, while maintaining a consistently high standard of quality remains static and challenging, little is known about how the employability of international doctorate students is shaped and at what juncture it is opportune to support their employability during their research studies. This paper aims to understand the employability of international doctoral students within business schools at British universities, drawing on Urie Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory as a framework. The qualitative study involves 15 international doctoral students from 9 business schools. The findings uncover various environmental systems impacting their employability. In addition, this study theoretically extends employability research by applying Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory to provide a multi-layered understanding of international doctorate employability, offering a novel framework for targeted career support interventions. Further, the implications highlight the urgent need for tailored support to build industrial connections, promote departmental collaboration to scaffold a dynamic research environment, proffer multiple resource channels, and create employment opportunities both inside and outside of the university.

Utilizing IoT and Cloud Computing for Weather-Health Monitoring Application

In an era defined by increasing climate changes and an increasing importance of accurate weather information, there is a need for a smart IoT- based weather monitoring system. This paper proposes an innovative system that uses Internet of Things (IoT) technology to advance weather monitoring and global data accessibility using Cloud computing. By seamlessly connecting multiple devices, such as sensors, electronic gadgets, and automotive electronics, to the internet, this system offers a complete solution for monitoring environmental conditions such as temperature, relative humidity, pressure, and rain levels. Specialized sensors collect data, which is then transformed into graphical interface using an app, enabling real-time weather information access worldwide. This technology has the ability to rethink how we convey and analyze environmental data with optimal efficiency and reach in industries including agriculture, urban planning, and environmental research.

Key attributes for effective knowledge brokering at the interface of environmental science and management

AbstractSpanning the boundaries between research and decision-making is critical for supporting environmental management. One way to do so is through knowledge brokers who, among other things, work to build social networks among decision-makers and researchers, facilitating their interaction and exchange of knowledge. While knowledge brokering has received increasing attention in the literature, critical gaps in our knowledge limit their effective recruitment and implementation, which demands for a better understanding of the personal attributes needed for their success. Such an understanding is also necessary to support the evaluation of knowledge brokering activities. Therefore, in this study, we investigate the question ‘what are the most important attributes for being a knowledge broker at the interface of environmental research and management’, and how is knowledge brokering evaluated. We do so through the study of Australia’s National Environmental Science Program (NESP) which employs a range of professional knowledge brokers, 14 of whom participated in this study. Specifically, we performed a quantitative ranking exercise (Q-methodology) and an online survey. Results show that the most important attributes to knowledge brokering were interpersonal social competencies of a unifying nature. As such, Being good at seeing opportunities for collaboration, Being able to tailor communication to different audiences, and Being able to ask questions were the most highly ranked attributes. In the dimension of evaluation, survey results show that NESP knowledge brokers are mainly evaluated through metrics relating to immediate delivery and engagement (mostly quantitative measures) and medium-term impact on end-users (qualitative measures). However, participants envisioned better options to capture the impact/value of knowledge brokering by evaluating long-term impacts and efforts throughout the full brokering process to better capture value addition in line with their goals, strategies, and required attributes. The new knowledge generated through our findings offers an applied contribution to the practice of knowledge brokering, suggesting that knowledge brokering is a distinct and complex career whereby different knowledge brokers with complementary skill sets appear relevant to perform all tasks along a knowledge brokering timeline. As such, our results also emphasize the need for bespoke approaches to evaluation that are tailored towards the diverse goals, strategies, and personal contributions of knowledge brokers to support their career progression and maximise outcomes.

Advanced imaging techniques and non-invasive biomarkers in pediatric brain tumors: state of the art.

In the pediatric age group, brain neoplasms are the second most common tumor category after leukemia, with an annual incidence of 6.13 per 100,000. Conventional MRI sequences, complemented by CT whenever necessary, are fundamental for the initial diagnosis and surgical planning as well as for post-operative evaluations, assessment of response to treatment, and surveillance; however, they have limitations, especially concerning histopathologic or biomolecular phenotyping and grading. In recent years, several advanced MRI sequences, including diffusion-weighted imaging, diffusion tensor imaging, arterial spin labelling (ASL) perfusion, and MR spectroscopy, have emerged as a powerful aid to diagnosis as well as prognostication; furthermore, other techniques such as diffusion kurtosis, amide proton transfer imaging, and MR elastography are being translated from the research environment to clinical practice. Molecular imaging, especially PET with amino-acid tracers, complement MRI in several aspects, including biopsy targeting and outcome prediction. Finally, radiomics with radiogenomics are opening entirely new perspectives for a quantitative approach aiming at identifying biomarkers that can be used for personalized, precision management strategies.

Environmental Sustainability Disclosure and Market Performance of Listed Consumer Goods Firms in Nigeria

This study aimed to examine the effect of environmental sustainability disclosure on the market performance of listed consumer goods firms in Nigeria. This study utilized ex-post facto research design. Data were gathered from the annual reports, sustainability disclosures, and financial databases of Nigerian consumer goods manufacturing firms listed on the Nigerian Exchange Group (NGX) as of December 31, 2023. The study encompassed a population of 21 listed consumer goods manufacturing firms in Nigeria. A census sampling technique was adopted, to investigate the entire population. The research covered a twelve-year period, from 2012 to 2023, to observe trends, patterns, and long-term impacts, enabling a robust analysis. This study employed descriptive statistics (mean, median, variance, standard deviation, skewness, and kurtosis) and inferential statistics (panel regression analysis, correlational analysis etc.) to conduct data analysis. This regression analysis conducted revealed that both environmental protections cost disclosure, and environmental research and development cost disclosure had positive and significant effect on the market performance of listed consumer goods firms in Nigeria. While environmental pollution cost disclosure had a negative but significant effect on market performance. Whereas environmental waste management control cost disclosure had positive and insignificant effect on market performance. The findings indicate that environmental cost disclosures play a significant role in shaping the market performance of consumer goods firms in Nigeria. Specifically, disclosures related to environmental protection and R&D have a positive impact, as they reflect a firm’s commitment to sustainability and innovation. It was recommended that firms should prioritize and continue to disclose their investments in environmental protection and R&D, as these are positively viewed by investors and enhance market performance.

A Comprehensive Review of Electromyography in Rehabilitation: Detecting Interrupted Wrist and Hand Movements with a Robotic Arm Approach

Electromyography (EMG) is a diagnostic technique that measures the electrical activity generated by skeletal muscles. Utilizing electrodes placed either on the skin (surface EMG) or inserted directly into the muscle(intramuscular EMG), it detects electrical signals produced during muscle contractions. EMG is widely employed in clinical and research settings to assess muscle function, diagnose neuromuscular disorders,and guide rehabilitation therapy. Over the years, EMG has evolved from a basic measurement tool into an essential technology within clinical and research environments, propelled by advances in recording techniques and digital innovations. The integration of wearable technology and artificial intelligence (AI) has significantly expanded its applications, particularly in rehabilitation and sports science. By capturing muscle electrical activity through surface or intramuscular electrodes, EMG benefits from enhanced signal processing that improves accuracy and data analysis. Despite challenges such as signal interference and the complexities of movement patterns—especially in wrist and hand rehabilitation—EMG combined with robotic systems offers real-time feedback for precise and personalized therapy. However, obstacles like cost, complexity, and variability among patients still remain. Future advancements aim to make EMG more accessible and to integrate AI for tailored rehabilitation strategies, alongside improvements in sensors and wireless communication to enhance reliability and performance. This review explores various facets of EMG,from its fundamental principles to its application in detecting disrupted wrist and hand movements through robotic approaches. It provides a comprehensive analysis of EMG’s historical and technological evolution, recent innovations like AI and wearable devices, and its extensive applications in rehabilitation and sports science. Detailed case studies illustrate its effectiveness in areas such as stroke recovery and spinal cord injury rehabilitation. Additionally, the review addresses challenges like technical limitations and patient variability while emphasizing the integration of EMG with robotic systems for personalized therapy. It also discusses the significance of real-time feedback, future enhancements in AI and sensor technology, and the pressing need for more affordable, user-friendly solutions to improve therapeutic outcomes.

Cesarean birth is associated with lower motor and language development scores during early childhood: a longitudinal analysis of two cohorts

With global C-section rates rising, understanding potential consequences is imperative. Previous studies suggested links between birth mode and psychological outcomes. This study evaluates the association of birth mode and neurodevelopment in young children across two prospective cohorts, using repeated psychometric assessments. Data from the ELEMENT (Early Life Exposures in Mexico to Environmental Toxicants) and PROGRESS (Programming Research in Obesity, Growth, and Environment and Social Stress) cohorts, comprising 7158 and 2202 observations of 1402 children aged 2 to 36 months, and 726 children aged 5 to 27 months, respectively, were analyzed. Exclusion criteria for the cohorts were maternal diseases such as preeclampsia, renal or heart disease, gestational diabetes, and epilepsy. Neurodevelopment was gauged via Bayley’s Scales of Infant Development: 2nd edition for ELEMENT and 3rd edition for PROGRESS. Mixed-effects models longitudinally estimated associations between birth mode and neurodevelopment scores, adjusting for cofounders. In ELEMENT, psychomotor development composite scores were significantly affected by birth mode from ages 2 to 8 months; the largest estimate within this range was at 2 months (β =-1.93; 95% CI: [-3.64, -0.22], reference: vaginal delivery). For PROGRESS, a negative association was found with motor development composite scores over all the studied age range (β=-1.91; 95% CI: [-3.01, -0.81]). The association was stronger between ages 6 to 18 months, with the strongest estimate at 11 months (β=-2.58; 95% CI: [-4.37, -0.74]). A negative impact of C-section on language scores in girls was estimated for the PROGRESS cohort (β=-1.92; 95% CI: [-3.57, -0.27]), most marked in ages 22 to 25 months (largest β at 24.5 months=-3.04; 95% CI: [-5.79, -0.30]). Children born by C-section showed lower motor and language development scores during specific age windows in the first three years of life. Further research is necessary to understand the complexities and implications of these findings.