Entry Ages Research Articles

School Entry-Age Effect on Student’s Affective–Motivational Attitudes in German Elementary Schools

AbstractThe effect of school entry age on children’s later performance is a long-debated topic without any convergence. Besides, existing studies have mostly limited themselves to examining the impact of entry age on children’s cognitive achievements. In Germany, where different entry-age regulations exist across federal states and academic tracking takes place very early, it is crucial to investigate whether these differential school entry ages affect children’s outcomes. This study, based on the longitudinal data available from the National Educational Panel Study, investigates the possible entry-age effect on children’s willingness to make an effort and their school enjoyment in the German elementary school context. The study found a positive entry-age effect only for willingness to make an effort but not for school enjoyment, and the existing entry-age effect decreases over time. Therefore, empirical evidence confirms that, in Germany, the entry-age effect persists in the short run and some child outcomes seem more sensitive to entry age than others. These are important findings in the German context where students’ academic tracking starts from lower secondary schooling and entry-age effects may significantly influence it.

Effects of Instructional Materials on Literacy Levels of Learners among Primary Schools in Helsinki, Finland

Instructional materials are many different tools and resources used by teachers to facilitate learning and encourage the learning process. The study sought to examine the effects of instructional materials on literacy levels of learners among primary schools in Helsinki, Finland. Learner-centered instructional materials encourage meaningful learning and makes learning more enjoyable. Nowadays primary school entry ages make it extremely convenient to employ instructional materials. Literacy is the ability to read, write, talk and listen in a manner that enables people to successfully communicate and make sense of the outside world. Literacy is highly valued in Finland, where over half of all young children can read before entering school. At the pre-school level, play-like activities and emergent literacy are prioritized. The study used the descriptive research design. The target population was 30 primary schools in Helsinki, Finland.  The research did sampling of 15 participants that were chosen from the target population of 30 primary schools in Helsinki, Finland. Questionnaires were utilized to gather the data. The study concluded that instructional materials have a significant impact on the literacy levels of learners. The quality and relevance of instructional materials can affect how well learners comprehend and retain information, and ultimately, their ability to read, write, and communicate effectively. Effective instructional materials should be designed with the learner in mind, taking into account their age, reading level, cultural background, and learning style. The study recommended that the government should set aside enough funds to increase the number of instructional materials in primary schools. The government should locate materials centers to make it easier for teachers to borrow or collect teaching materials that are unavailable in primary schools. Keywords: Instructional Materials, Literacy Levels, Learners, Schools, Finland

Cross-Subsidization of Teacher Pension Normal Cost: The Case of CalSTRS

Under traditional defined benefit pension plans, annual contributions are set at a uniform percentage of pay to fund accruing benefits. That normal cost rate masks wide variation in the cost of individual benefits, generating an extensive and non-transparent pattern of cross-subsidization. We provide a comprehensive analysis of cross-subsidies in employer contributions across all entry and exit ages. The gains and losses of winners and losers must add up to zero, and we explain why they do not in some previous work, which claims that nearly all teachers are winners in the California Teachers Retirement System. To the contrary, we find about two-thirds of all entrants are losers. The losers earn benefits with an average annual employer cost of 0.8 percent of pay, vs. 5.7 percent for the winners. In effect, this is a system of widely varying, but non-transparent employer matches to the employee contribution, unlike a retirement account plan with a uniform match.

Children’s Executive Function Attenuate the Link Between Maternal Intrusiveness and Internalizing Behaviors at School Entry

The goal of this study was to examine the independent and interactive roles of harsh-intrusive maternal behaviors and children’s executive function in the development of internalizing behaviors across the first years of school. A diverse sample (58% African American, 42% European American) of 137 children (48% female) was followed from kindergarten (age 5 years) through school entry (ages 6–7 years). At age 5, maternal harsh-intrusive parenting behaviors were rated from a mother–child structured play task, and children completed 3 executive function tasks that measured inhibitory control, working memory, and attention set-shifting. Teachers reported on children’s internalizing behaviors at ages 5, 6, and 7. Harsh-intrusive parenting behaviors at age 5 years were positively related to internalizing behaviors in the first years of school, whereas high executive function abilities at age 5 years were related to lower internalizing behaviors in the first years of school. In addition, executive function buffered the association between parenting behaviors and internalizing behaviors such that the link between harsh-intrusive parenting and child internalizing behaviors was evident only among children with low executive function and not among children with high executive function. Interventions that focus on reducing negative parenting behaviors and improving children’s executive function may prevent internalizing behaviors from increasing during times of social and academic challenge.

Impact of the entry age and veterinary care on the health and performance of veal calves. II. Blood values, performance and carcass quality

The objective of this field study was to investigate the impact of the entry age and of veterinary care on blood values, performance and carcass quality of veal calves in Switzerland. From July 2012 until May 2013 a total of 316 young calves (aged ø 10.8 days), 425 market calves (aged ø 39.5 days), and 65 old calves (aged ø 61.5 days) were observed during the production cycle. As control calves 9'019 veal calves fattened at the same time as the market calves were available. At time of entry the average hemoglobin value of 88.2 g/l in market calves was significantly (p < 0.001) lower than in young (96.2 g/l), old (95.0 g/l) and control calves (95.0 g/l). At time of slaughter the hemoglobin of control calves was 101.2 g/l and significantly (p < 0.001) lower than in young (129.6 g/l) and market calves (131.6 g/l). The average daily weight gain reached 1.21 kg in young calves, 1.28 kg in market calves, 1.29 kg in old calves and 1.30 kg in control calves. The premature slaughter rate was 3.4% in control calves, 8.1% young (p < 0.001), 3.4% in commercial and 0% in old calves (p = 0.17). The percentage of the favorite carcass quality was 53.8% in control calves and differed significantly (p < 0.001) from young (43.5%) and market calves (42.8%), but not from old calves (50.8%, p = 0.9). The carcass color with the average photometric L-value of 41.5 in young and 41.6 in market calves differed significantly (p < 0.001) from old (44.4) and control calves (45.4). The intensive veterinary care and the different entry ages had no positive effect on performance and carcass quality. The iron supply resulted in increased hemoglobin values and in reddish carcass color in more than 50% of the investigated calves.

Einfluss des Einstallalters und der tierärztlichen Betreuung auf die Gesundheit und Leistung von Mastkälbern. I. Mortalität und Antibiotikaeinsatz

The objective of this field study was to describe the impact of the entry age and intensive veterinary care on mortality and antimicrobial use of veal calves in Switzerland. From July until October 2012, a total of 316 young calves (aged ø 10.8 days) and from November 2012 until May 2013 a total of 425 market calves (aged ø 39.5 days) were housed on a welcome-farm, where they obtained daily veterinary care during the first 6 weeks of the production cycle. As a 3rd category 2 groups of 34 and 31 old calves (aged ø 61.5 days), respectively, were housed on a commercial farm. From entry to slaughter the daily doses of antibiotics on group level averaged 35.6 in young calves, 26.2 in commercial calves, and 21.0 in old calves. On the welcome-farm 45.9% and 48.5% of the young and market calves, respectively, were individually treated, and in the finishing period of the production cycle 10.4% and 3.3% of the young and market calves, respectively. Of the old calves 16.9% were individually treated. Mortality was 6.7% in young calves, 8.2% in commercial calves, and 4.6% in old calves. Intensive veterinary care guaranteed early recognition of disease and euthanasia of terminally morbid calves. The different entry ages did not lead to any reduction in mortality or in antimicrobial use compared to previous studies.

The emergence and stability of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in boys with fragile X syndrome.

Children with fragile X syndrome (FXS) are at high risk for developing a range of behavioural disorders, including attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and autism spectrum disorders (ASD). However, very few studies have investigated the comorbid profile of FXS and ADHD and the possible dissociation from the FXS and ASD profile. The present study examined the relationship of childhood temperament characteristics of the Surgency facet (activity level, impulsivity, approach, shyness, and smiling and laughter) and the severity of ADHD and ASD features at two measurement time points in childhood, preschool (ages 3-4) and at school entry (ages 5-6). The study consisted of males with FXS measured at each time point (preschool and school entry), as well as comparison of typically developing (TD) boys at the preschool measurement time point. Parent reported measures of temperament and behavioural symptoms were collected at each time point. Multiple regression analyses were used to analyse obtained data. Elevated activity level scores are associated with ADHD scores at preschool age and elevated shyness and decreased smiling and laughter are strongly associated with ADHD scores upon school entry. Impulsivity emerges as a strong indicator of elevated ADHD scores around school age, but even preschool impulsivity scores demonstrate some predictive value for higher ADHD scores later in school. Finally, no Surgency characteristic was significantly related to ASD scores at any age. Impulsivity serves as an indicator of elevated ADHD symptoms across development periods in boys with FXS, while activity level is just indicative of higher ADHD scores at the preschool age. The Surgency facet of temperament at either age does not predict strong relationships of comorbid pathologies of ADHD and ASD in FXS. However, Surgency characteristics may serve as informative discriminative factors when studying behavioural outcomes in boys with FXS.

Stand and Tree Response to Commercial Thinning of Red Pine in Michigan

Responses to operational thinning treatments were compared through the second thinning in four red pine (Pinus resinosa Ait.) stands with site indices ranging from 66 to 90 ft (base age 50 years) and first entry ages ranging from 19 to 27 years. First-thin treatments consisted of a row thin combined with an operator select crown thin that removed 1 in every 5 trees in leave rows at all locations, row thin only at two locations, and several other treatments specific to location. The second-thin treatments were performed 7–8 years after the first thin to leave a residual basal area of 89–99 ft2/ac. Total stand basal area growth between thins did not differ because of the type of thin nor between thinned and unthinned treatments. Merchantable volume growth was usually less for thinned treatments, and there was a lower percent yield in the higher product class for the first thin. There was a general pattern for growth in thinned treatments to be initially less than that in unthinned treatments and then increase with years since thinning. The more intense thin treatments had the largest diameter responses, and the second entry could probably be delayed several years with no loss of growth by following current basal area management guidelines.

Differential risk for late adolescent conduct problems and mood dysregulation among children with early externalizing behavior problems.

To investigate the differential emergence of antisocial behaviors and mood dysregulation among children with externalizing problems, the present study prospectively followed 317 high-risk children with early externalizing problems from school entry (ages 5-7) to late adolescence (ages 17-19). Latent class analysis conducted on their conduct and mood symptoms in late adolescence revealed three distinct patterns of symptoms, characterized by: 1) criminal offenses, conduct disorder symptoms, and elevated anger ("conduct problems"), 2) elevated anger, dysphoric mood, and suicidal ideation ("mood dysregulation"), and 3) low levels of severe conduct and mood symptoms. A diathesis-stress model predicting the first two outcomes was tested. Elevated overt aggression at school entry uniquely predicted conduct problems in late adolescence, whereas elevated emotion dysregulation at school entry uniquely predicted mood dysregulation in late adolescence. Experiences of low parental warmth and peer rejection in middle childhood moderated the link between early emotion dysregulation and later mood dysregulation but did not moderate the link between early overt aggression and later conduct problems. Thus, among children with early externalizing behavior problems, increased risk for later antisocial behavior or mood dysfunction may be identifiable in early childhood based on levels of overt aggression and emotion dysregulation. For children with early emotion dysregulation, however, increased risk for mood dysregulation characterized by anger, dysphoric mood, and suicidality--possibly indicative of disruptive mood dysregulation disorder--emerges only in the presence of low parental warmth and/or peer rejection during middle childhood.

Income Growth, School Enrolment and the Gender Gap in Schooling: Evidence from Rural Pakistan

Household panel data document a remarkable closing of the gender gap in school enrolment in rural Pakistan between 2001 and 2004. During this 3-year period, there was an 8 point increase in the percentage of girls entering school, while the corresponding increase for boys was less than 2 percentage points. More than half of the rise for girls can be explained by the substantial increase in household incomes, whereas comparatively little is accounted for by increased school availability. Unpacking these enrolment trends and their determinants requires solving the classic period-age-cohort identification problem. The paper shows how to do so using auxiliary information on the distribution of school entry ages. JEL Classification: O15, O40, I 25, I21 Keywords: School Enrolment, Gender, Income Growth, Gender Gap

Logistic‐AFT location‐scale mixture regression models with nonsusceptibility for left‐truncated and general interval‐censored data

In conventional survival analysis there is an underlying assumption that all study subjects are susceptible to the event. In general, this assumption does not adequately hold when investigating the time to an event other than death. Owing to genetic and/or environmental etiology, study subjects may not be susceptible to the disease. Analyzing nonsusceptibility has become an important topic in biomedical, epidemiological, and sociological research, with recent statistical studies proposing several mixture models for right-censored data in regression analysis. In longitudinal studies, we often encounter left, interval, and right-censored data because of incomplete observations of the time endpoint, as well as possibly left-truncated data arising from the dissimilar entry ages of recruited healthy subjects. To analyze these kinds of incomplete data while accounting for nonsusceptibility and possible crossing hazards in the framework of mixture regression models, we utilize a logistic regression model to specify the probability of susceptibility, and a generalized gamma distribution, or a log-logistic distribution, in the accelerated failure time location-scale regression model to formulate the time to the event. Relative times of the conditional event time distribution for susceptible subjects are extended in the accelerated failure time location-scale submodel. We also construct graphical goodness-of-fit procedures on the basis of the Turnbull-Frydman estimator and newly proposed residuals. Simulation studies were conducted to demonstrate the validity of the proposed estimation procedure. The mixture regression models are illustrated with alcohol abuse data from the Taiwan Aboriginal Study Project and hypertriglyceridemia data from the Cardiovascular Disease Risk Factor Two-township Study in Taiwan.

Overweight and obesity trends in Copenhagen schoolchildren from 2002 to 2007

The purpose of this study is to monitor the prevalence trend in overweight and obesity among Copenhagen schoolchildren from the school years 2002 to 2007. Copenhagen community health service doctors conducted routine examinations at school entry (ages 5-8 years) and exit (ages 14-16 years). Body mass index (kg/m²) of 33,245 schoolchildren was calculated. The prevalence of overweight (including obesity) and obesity was classified using the International Obesity Task Force definitions. From 2002 to 2007, although the prevalence of overweight (including obesity) in young girls decreased from 17.8 to 15.9%, the trend was non-significant. In young boys, the trend slightly decreased, and the prevalence fell from 14.0 to 11.6%. In adolescent girls, the prevalence varied considerably and increased from 22.7 to 25.4% without a discernable trend. In adolescent boys, the trend slightly increased, and the prevalence rose from 15.8 to 18.9%. There were no significant changes in the prevalence of obesity. In contrast to the preceding decades, we identified a potential stagnation in the obesity epidemic among children but a continuing increase among adolescents. It remains critical to continue monitoring and to increase preventive measures to reduce the prevalence of overweight and obesity.

Boar culling and mortality in commercial swine breeding herds

The objectives of this study were to measure culling rate and mortality rate of boars; to compare boar life day (BLD: days from birth date to removal date), boar herd life day (BHLD: days from herd entry date to removal date) and herd entry age of boars between high-performing herds and ordinary herds (herd groups); to examine herd measurements for BLD, BHLD and boar age at herd entry; and to observe removal patterns and survival curves for boars by herd groups. This study used 2474 records of individual boars born in 108 herds from 2000 to 2003. Two herd groups were formed on the basis of the upper 25th percentile of pigs weaned per mated female per year (2001–2005). Mixed-effects models and survival analysis were performed. Means of BLD and BHLD (±S.E.M.) were 984 ± 9.5 and 781 ± 8.4 d, respectively. Annualized culling rate and mortality rate were 0.411 and 0.035 boars per 365 BHLD, respectively. Boars in high-performing herds had 51 higher BLD and 62 higher BHLD than those in ordinary herds ( P < 0.01). High-performing herds had 32 d lower entry ages than ordinary herds ( P < 0.01). Herd measurements such as herd mortality and herd size were not associated with both BLD and BHLD. The hazards in survival analysis were associated with herd groups ( P < 0.05). Measurements in the present study provide benchmarks for boar removal in commercial herds.

Television viewing habits associated with obesity risk factors: a survey of Melbourne schoolchildren

To examine whether children's television viewing may be a useful indicator of risk of obesity-promoting versus healthy eating behaviours, low-level physical activity (PA) and overweight or obesity among children of primary school entry and exit ages. Cross-sectional study, stratified by area-level socioeconomic status. 1560 children (613 aged 5-6 years [50% boys], and 947 aged 10-12 years [46% boys]) from 24 primary schools in Melbourne, Australia, randomly selected proportionate to school size between 1 November 2002 and 30 December 2003. Parents' reports of the time their child spends watching television, their participation in organised physical activities (PA), and their food intake; each child's measured height and weight and their PA levels as assessed by accelerometry for one week. After adjusting for the age and sex of child, the parents' level of education, clustering by school, and all other health behaviour variables, children who watched television for > 2 h/day were significantly more likely than children who watched television for < or = 2 h/day to: to have one or more serves/day of high energy drinks (adjusted odds ratio [AOR], 2.31; 95% CI, 1.61-3.32), and to have one or more serves/day of savoury snacks (AOR, 1.50; 95% CI, 1.04-2.17). They were also less likely to have two or more serves/day of fruit (AOR, 0.58; 95% CI, 0.46-0.74), or to participate in any organised PA (AOR, 0.52; 95% CI, 0.34-0.80). Health practitioners in the primary care setting may find that asking whether a child watches television for more than 2 hours daily can be a useful indicator of a child's risk of poor diet and low physical activity level.

Racial differences in early-onset renal disease among young adults: the coronary artery risk development in young adults (CARDIA) study.

Although 11 million people in the United States have chronic renal insufficiency, little is known about ethnic/racial disparities for early-onset renal impairment. This study sought to determine whether there is an independent association between race/ethnicity and early-onset renal impairment and to identify other risk factors that might account for observed disparities. All Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults subjects in which serum creatinine was measured at the year 15 examination were identified (n = 3554), excluding those who were pregnant at year 15. Potential risk factors at study entry (ages 18 to 30 yr, 1985 to 1986) included age, weight, gender, race/ethnicity, glucose, uric acid, and systolic BP. Renal impairment was defined as creatinine > or =1.5 mg/dl for men and > or = 1.2 mg/dl for women at year 15 (ages 33 to 45 yr). Fifty-two (2.7%) women and 39 (2.4%) men had renal impairment at the year 15 examination. In bivariate analyses, the odds of renal impairment among black women was estimated to be 2.4-fold that of white women, and among black men, the odds of renal impairment were 9.0-fold that of white men. In multivariate analysis, the odds of an elevated creatinine among black women compared with white women reduced to a nonsignificant 1.5-fold, whereas among men, the odds of an elevated creatinine among blacks was 11.4-fold that of whites. Although adjustment for baseline glucose levels accounted for much of the association between ethnicity and elevated creatinine among women, adjustment for weight, systolic BP, uric acid, glucose, and socioeconomic status did not account for the association between ethnicity and renal impairment among men. The data suggest that there are ethnic differences in the development of early-onset renal dysfunction. Among women, these differences are modest and largely accounted for by differences in glucose levels early in adult life. Differences in race/ethnicity related risk of early-onset renal impairment are particularly large among men and are not accounted for by the metabolic or socioeconomic factors evaluated.

Preschool Developmental Pathways to Preadolescent Internalizing and Externalizing Problems

The present study investigated longitudinal pathways from specific early preschool behavioral problems (ages 2-3 years) to internalizing and externalizing problems in preadolescence (ages 10-11 years), and the role of social problems at school entry (ages 4-5 years) in such pathways. Path analyses were performed using both parent and teacher reports in a sample of 251 to 346 children from the general population, depending on the availability of parent and teacher data at each time of assessment. Structural equation modeling revealed homotypic internalizing and externalizing pathways, predictions from early preschool externalizing problems to later internalizing problems, and negative predictive paths from early internalizing problems to externalizing problems in preadolescence. Cross-informant predictions spanning 8 years were found between parent-reported aggression and overactivity at ages 2-3 years and teacher-reported externalizing problems at ages 10-11 years. Further, results showed that boys' pathways were more complex and showed greater predictive validity than pathways for girls, and that social problems at school entry played a significant role in pathways to internalizing problems, but only for boys. The results are discussed from a developmental psychopathology perspective.

Productivity and fitness in a fjord cod population: an ecological and evolutionary approach

Two modeling approaches were used to evaluate the combined responses in a fish population to environmental fluctuations and exploitation. Short-term effects of growth and survival of year classes of cod and the effects of fishing were evaluated by using a modified version of a dynamic ecosystem model (DYNECOMAS II), originally developed for extensive mariculture purposes in Masfjorden, western Norway. Simulations indicated that the availability of zooplankton and density-dependent predation and cannibalism were key factors for the carrying capacity for cod in the fjord. On a short-term scale, there was a strong-density-dependent regulation of cod productivity, individual growth and survival, while fisheries had little impact. Long-term effects on the fitness of cod in relation to fishery and environmental variability were evaluated by means of a life history model. The intrinsic rate of increase r was chosen as a measure of fitness. The impact on cod fitness of maturation age, variable survival at egg, larval and 0-group stage (reflecting variable recruitment to age 1) and the degree of density-dependent growth were studied for different entry ages to the fishery for both moderate and high fishing intensities. A modified Euler–Lotka equation was parameterized using available empirical data on growth, age-dependent fishing mortality and fecundity for cod from Masfjorden and DYNECOMAS II model-predicted natural mortality for juveniles (predation mortality). The solution ( r) was found by iteration for combinations of maturing age, fishing mortality and survival probability until 1 year of age. The predictions obtained were that (a) the lower the survival probability until 1 year of age, the lower the fitness; (b) the higher the maturing age the lower the fitness; (c) an early entry to even a moderate fishery resulted in r<0 for low survival probability to age 1; (d) if a high degree of density-dependent growth was associated with an early entry to an intensive fishery ( F=1) from age 1 year and onwards, the surviving individuals from an average year class may not produce enough replace spawners regardless of maturing age, since r<0.

Demographic Influences on the Number of Children at School Entry Ages, with Examples from Three States

"This paper analyzes the effects of changes in fertility, mortality, and net migration patterns on the growth of school entry-age populations in three states (Florida, South Carolina, and West Virginia) over the period 1950-1990. Fertility changes have had the largest influence on growth of these young populations, as common sense suggests. Changing migration patterns have been quite important, however, in explaining intertemporal and interspatial variations in growth rates."

First-Grade Entry Age in a Sample of Children Labeled Learning Disabled

First-grade entry ages were determined for all LD children in grades one through twelve in a large special education cooperative. The children were classified as early, medium, or late entering. U.S. Census data were consulted to determine the expected frequencies in each of these categories. It was found that there were more early-entering and fewer late-entering children in this sample than would be expected if entry age were a chance variable. Though more research is needed, the results of this study suggest the possibility that children who enter first grade early may be more likely to be labeled LD than children who enter when they are older.

The Relevance of Expected Persistency Rates When Projecting Pension Costs

The Relevance of Expected Persistency Rates When Projecting Pension Costs