Entire Peruvian Research Articles

La Puesta en Valor de la Ley General de Transporte Terrestre en los Pobladores de Huanta, 2023

The purpose of this work was focused on characterizing the value of the general law of land transportation in the inhabitants of Huanta, Ayacucho, Peru. The research corresponds to a quantitative method. (Héctor Cárcamo Vásquez, 2009) This law decrees the general, organizational and regulatory orientation of land transportation that governs the entire Peruvian territory (Palma, 2022). General Law of Land Transportation and Transit N. 27181, incorporated by Emergency Decree N. 019-2020, 4-A-1 establishes various obstacles for certain natural and legal persons to obtain authorized domain rights for the assistance of transportation or auxiliary services while the interference would be justified in the protection of the referred constitutional rights (Chafloque Tullume, 2022). Transportation in Peru is governed under free market principles, with legal facilities for permits and services under Law No. 27181, which establishes the general economic, organizational and regulatory criteria for road transportation and transit and applies throughout the territory of the Republic. The transporter, complying with regulatory requirements such as safety, technical condition of the vehicle, without monopolization or price standardization, has the opportunity to access, with prior authorization, on non-saturated roads, according to the services provided that are in areas or roads classified as saturated (Risco, 2020). So one of the criticisms to the people of Huanta is that they should put into practice the good management of the general transportation regulations, in order to stop committing accidents due to the same recklessness of the driver.

Three new Hymedesmia Bowerbank, 1864 (Demospongiae, Poecilosclerida, Hymedesmiidae) from the Southeast Pacific (Peru and Chile).

Despite its 2000 km long shoreline, to date less than 50 sponge species have been reported from the entire Peruvian coast. A large collecting effort targeting marine sponges was undertaken between 2007 and 2009, yielding a comprehensive collection of nearly 900 samples, whose taxonomic study is underway. Three new species of Hymedesmiidae are presently described from the Peruvian coast, all belonging in Hymedesmia (Hymedesmia), one of which also found in Chile. Hymedesmia (H.) santarositae sp. nov., from Isla Santa Rosa (Paracas), is characterized by the presence of microstrongyles next to sigmas. Hymedesmia (H.) peruana sp. nov., from Isla Foca (Piura), is diagnosed by its three categories of acanthostyles, and single categories of tornotes and arcuate isochelae. Hymedesmia (H.) humboldti sp. nov., from Moquega and Arequipa regions in Peru, and Antofagasta and Atacama regions in Chile, is diagnosed by its two categories of acanthostyles, and single categories of (aniso)strongyles and arcuate isochelae, the latter abundant at the surface. An identification key for Hymedesmia spp. from the South-eastern Pacific, South-western Atlantic, the Sub-Antarctic and the Antarctic is provided.

PISCOeo_pm, a reference evapotranspiration gridded database based on FAO Penman-Monteith in Peru

A new FAO Penman-Monteith reference evapotranspiration gridded dataset is introduced, called PISCOeo_pm. PISCOeo_pm has been developed for the 1981–2016 period at ~1 km (0.01°) spatial resolution for the entire continental Peruvian territory. The framework for the development of PISCOeo_pm is based on previously generated gridded data of meteorological subvariables such as air temperature (maximum and minimum), sunshine duration, dew point temperature, and wind speed. Different steps, i.e., (i) quality control, (ii) gap-filling, (iii) homogenization, and (iv) spatial interpolation, were applied to the subvariables. Based on the results of an independent validation, on average, PISCOeo_pm exhibits better precision than three existing gridded products (CRU_TS, TerraClimate, and ERA5-Land) because it presents a predictive capacity above the average observed using daily and monthly data and has a higher spatial resolution. Therefore, PISCOeo_pm is useful for better understanding the terrestrial water and energy balances in Peru as well as for its application in fields such as climatology, hydrology, and agronomy, among others.

Recycling and Burial of Biogenic Silica in an Open Margin Oxygen Minimum Zone

AbstractAn extensive data set of biogenic silica (BSi) fluxes is presented for the Peruvian oxygen minimum zone (OMZ) at 11°S and 12°S. Each transect extends from the shelf to the upper slope (∼1,000 m) and dissects the permanently anoxic waters between ∼200 and 500 m water depth. BSi burial (2,100 mmol m−2 yr−1) and recycling fluxes (3,300 mmol m−2 yr−1) were highest on the shelf with mean preservation efficiencies (34% ± 15%) that exceed the global mean of 10%–20%. BSi preservation was highest on the inner shelf (up to 56%), decreasing to 7% and 12% under anoxic waters and below the OMZ, respectively. The data suggest that the main control on BSi preservation is the rate at which reactive BSi is transported away from undersaturated surface sediments by burial and bioturbation to the underlying saturated sediment layers where BSi dissolution is thermodynamically and/or kinetically inhibited. BSi burial across the entire Peruvian margin between 3°S to 15°S and down to 1,000 m water depth is estimated to be 0.1–0.2 Tmol yr−1; equivalent to 2%–7% of total burial on continental margins. Existing global data permit a simple relationship between BSi rain rate to the seafloor and the accumulation of unaltered BSi, giving the possibility to reconstruct rain rates and primary production from the sediment archive in addition to benthic Si turnover in global models.

Gas exchange estimates in the Peruvian upwelling regime biased by multi-day near-surface stratification

Abstract. The coastal upwelling regime off Peru in December 2012 showed considerable vertical concentration gradients of dissolved nitrous oxide (N2O) across the top few meters of the ocean. The gradients were predominantly downward, i.e., concentrations decreased toward the surface. Ignoring these gradients causes a systematic error in regionally integrated gas exchange estimates, when using observed concentrations at several meters below the surface as input for bulk flux parameterizations – as is routinely practiced. Here we propose that multi-day near-surface stratification events are responsible for the observed near-surface N2O gradients, and that the gradients induce the strongest bias in gas exchange estimates at winds of about 3 to 6 m s−1. Glider hydrographic time series reveal that events of multi-day near-surface stratification are a common feature in the study region. In the same way as shorter events of near-surface stratification (e.g., the diurnal warm layer cycle), they preferentially exist under calm to moderate wind conditions, suppress turbulent mixing, and thus lead to isolation of the top layer from the waters below (surface trapping). Our observational data in combination with a simple gas-transfer model of the surface trapping mechanism show that multi-day near-surface stratification can produce near-surface N2O gradients comparable to observations. They further indicate that N2O gradients created by diurnal or shorter stratification cycles are weaker and do not substantially impact bulk emission estimates. Quantitatively, we estimate that the integrated bias for the entire Peruvian upwelling region in December 2012 represents an overestimation of the total N2O emission by about a third, if concentrations at 5 or 10 m depth are used as surrogate for bulk water N2O concentration. Locally, gradients exist which would lead to emission rates overestimated by a factor of two or more. As the Peruvian upwelling region is an N2O source of global importance, and other strong N2O source regions could tend to develop multi-day near-surface stratification as well, the bias resulting from multi-day near-surface stratification may also impact global oceanic N2O emission estimates.

Environmental predictors of forest change: An analysis of natural predisposition to deforestation in the tropical Andes region, Peru

The spatial patterns of deforestation are usually non-randomly distributed across the landscape. While anthropogenically driven processes are often addressed in land-use regulation policies and deforestation research, less attention is given to the environmental factors that influence tropical deforestation. This study investigates to what extent climate conditions (temperature and precipitation) and biophysical landscape characteristics (elevation, slope, soil type, forest type, and distance to rivers) facilitate or mitigate deforestation processes in Peru's tropical Andes. A Random Forest regression model was constructed for the entire Peruvian tropical Andes, and separate models were developed for some of the known direct deforestation drivers in the region (coca production, gold mining, and land-use by indigenous and non-indigenous communities). Soil type and precipitation were identified as the most important deforestation predictors when the entire Peruvian tropical Andes was considered, whereas distance to rivers was associated with deforestation by mining activities, and elevation and temperature with coca cultivation areas. Using the regression results, a Random Forest classification model was constructed to locate areas where the composition of environmental factors could either facilitate or mitigate deforestation processes. It was found that almost 85% of the forests classified as having high to very high probability to deforestation were located outside current protected areas. In order to increase conservation impacts, the results suggest that greater consideration should be given to the distribution of environmental factors when designing land-use regulation policies and establishing protected areas.

Big catch, little sharks: Insight into Peruvian small‐scale longline fisheries

Shark take, driven by vast demand for meat and fins, is increasing. We set out to gain insights into the impact of small-scale longline fisheries in Peru. Onboard observers were used to document catch from 145 longline fishing trips (1668 fishing days) originating from Ilo, southern Peru. Fishing effort is divided into two seasons: targeting dolphinfish (Coryphaena hippurus; December to February) and sharks (March to November). A total of 16,610 sharks were observed caught, with 11,166 identified to species level. Of these, 70.6% were blue sharks (Prionace glauca), 28.4% short-fin mako sharks (Isurus oxyrinchus), and 1% were other species (including thresher (Alopias vulpinus), hammerhead (Sphyrna zygaena), porbeagle (Lamnus nasus), and other Carcharhinidae species (Carcharhinus brachyurus, Carcharhinus falciformis, Galeorhinus galeus). Mean ± SD catch per unit effort of 33.6 ± 10.9 sharks per 1000 hooks was calculated for the shark season and 1.9 ± 3.1 sharks per 1000 hooks were caught in the dolphinfish season. An average of 83.7% of sharks caught (74.7% blue sharks; 93.3% mako sharks) were deemed sexually immature and under the legal minimum landing size, which for species exhibiting k-selected life history traits can result in susceptibility to over exploitation. As these growing fisheries operate along the entire Peruvian coast and may catch millions of sharks per annum, we conclude that their continued expansion, along with ineffective legislative approaches resulting in removal of immature individuals, has the potential to threaten the sustainability of the fishery, its target species, and ecosystem. There is a need for additional monitoring and research to inform novel management strategies for sharks while maintaining fisher livelihoods.

Re-Legislating the Soil: Enclosure and Exception at the Amazon Frontiers

In 2009 a series of mobilizations articulated by indigenous groups took control over practically the entire Peruvian Amazon. Geographically distributed but politically articulated, these manifestations were fighting against the institution of a new Forest Law that would transform not only the juridical framework that governs Amazonian lands but potentially alter the very ecological nature of the forest itself. This text traces some of the lines of this conflict in order to discuss the relations between sovereignty and nature, government and environment, politics and ecology.

A new Clathria (Demospongiae, Microcionidae) from Peru occurring on rocky substrates as well as epibiontic on Eucidaris thouarsii sea urchins

Southeastern Pacific sponges (Phylum Porifera) range among the world’s least known faunas, with only 13 species reported to date from the entire Peruvian coast. This state of affairs motivated the onset of two large, cooperative, exploratory initiatives, with the aim of mapping sponge richness and distribution in the area: Proyectos ESPER and EsponjAS. Over 800 specimens have been collected in Peru since 2007, with identifications still in progress. Among these, a sponge species originally thought to be an exclusive epibiont on Eucidaris thouarsii sea urchins, relatively conspicuous on Peru’s Punta Sal region. This sponge, latter found to occur on additional substrates too, is described as a new species of Clathria (Microciona). Cidarid density ranged between 1.5 and 12/m 2 , and largest diameter of the tests between 3.2 and 5.6 cm. Total number of spines on each sea urchin varied between 68 and 96, and percent sponge coverage of these, between 18.2 and 75.7. There appears to be only a slight tendency for increased sponge coverage on larger sea urchins, so there may be factors, other than sea urchin age, shaping this association. Clathria (Microciona) aculeofila sp. nov. can be markedly dominant as an epibiont on E. thouarsii, albeit the great sponge richness in the area. This is in contrast to the allegedly opportunistic, diverse epibiosis by sponges reported previously for Antarctic cidaroids.

Where small can have a large impact: Structure and characterization of small-scale fisheries in Peru

Small-scale fisheries in Peru constitute an important source of food and employment for coastal communities where fish is the single most important natural resource. Utilizing official statistics and extensive survey data from 30 fishing ports and by onboard observers operating from 11 ports, we review how these fisheries grew from 1995 to 2005, and provide insights into the relative importance of different fishing gears and their modes of operation. Small-scale fisheries operate along the entire Peruvian coast and have continued expanding in number of vessels and fishers in all geopolitical regions except one. Nationwide, the number of fishers grew by 34% from 28 098 to 37 727 and the number of vessels increased by 54% from 6268 to 9667. At 30 harbors, the number of vessels increased for purse seiners (17.8%) and longliners (357.4%), while gillnets decreased (−14.5%). These dramatic changes could jeopardize the sustainability of these fisheries and the livelihoods of those who depend upon them, especially considering the limited capacity for management. Despite increase in effort, catch and catch per vessel have decreased, especially in some of the sub-regions that previously constituted the majority of effort and landings, raising concerns regarding their sustainability. Of the fishing gears monitored, gillnets were shown to have the most frequent interactions with threatened taxa such as marine mammals, seabirds and sea turtles. The total length of gillnets set in Peru was estimated at >100 000 km of net per year, about 14 times the length used by the Taiwanese high seas driftnet fleet in the Pacific before it was banned. Longlines, although shown to be a more efficient fishing method (economically and in terms of selectivity), still had bycatch of turtles and seabirds, and marine mammals are targeted to be used as bait. We conservatively estimate that longline vessels operating in Peru set an average of 80 million hooks per year; equivalent to one-third of the annual effort of the global industrial swordfish longline fishery. We conclude that, despite their definition as small-scale, the magnitude of these fleets and their fishing effort are vast and are of concern with regard to their long term sustainability and their impacts and interactions with large marine vertebrates. We highlight the need for increased research and management measures to ensure the long term viability of these fisheries.

Morphotectonic and morphometric analysis of the Nazca plate and the adjacent offshore Peruvian continental slope — Implications for submarine landscape evolution

We use new swath bathymetry data acquired during the RV Sonne cruise GEOPECO and complement them with swath data from adjacent regions to analyse the morphotectonics of the Peruvian convergent margin. The Nazca plate is not covered with sediments and therefore has a rough surface along the entire Peruvian trench. The styles of roughness differ significantly along the margin with linear morphological features trending in various directions, most of them oblique to the trench and roughness magnitudes of a few to several hundred meters. The lower slope is locally very rough and at the verge of failure throughout the entire Peruvian margin, as a result of subduction erosion causing the lower slope to over-steepen. Using curvature attributes to quantitatively examine the morphology in the Yaquina and Mendaña areas revealed that the latter shows a larger local roughness both seaward and landward of the trench. However, the amplitude of morphological roughness is larger in the Yaquina area. We identified a 125 km 2 large slump on the Lima middle slope. Morphometric dating suggests an age of 74,500 years within 35 to 40% error. Estimated incision rates on the upper slope are between 0.1 and 0.3 mm/yr suggesting that landscape evolution on the Peruvian submarine continental slope is similarly slow than that in the Atacama desert.

A systematic reassessment and paleogeographic review of fossil Xenarthra from Peru

A revision of Peruvian Xenarthra and the discovery of new specimens have increased our knowledge of the Order in this country. About thirty sites from three geographic regions, Amazonian Forest, the Andes, and the coast have yielded Xenarthra in Peru. The only well known Pre-Pleistocene Xenarthra is Thalassocnus from the Mio-Pliocene of the Pisco Formation. Pleistocene Phyllophaga (Megatheriidae, Nothrotheriidae, Mylodontidae, and Megalonychidae) and Cingulata (Pampatheriidae and Glyptodontidae) are rare in the Amazonian forest region, abundant in the coastal region and are particularly frequent in the Andes (between 2 500 and 4 500 meters). Cingulata are not as diverse and are represented only by Holmesina cf. paulacoutoi along the coast and Glyptodon clavipes in the Andes. The mylodontid Glossotherium sp. is recognized in the entire Peruvian coast and the scelidothere Scelidodon chiliensis is abundant in both the Andes and northern coast region. Pleistocene nothrotheres are found only in the Amazonian forest region (Nothropus priscus in Rio Acre). Megatheriidae are well diversified and have an extended geographic range. The tropical genus Eremotherium (E. laurillardi) is present on the northern coast and is possibly represented in Amazonia by a gigantic form. The temperate genus Megatherium is represented in Peru by a small-sized, quadrupedal, and browser of the Andean linage of the subgenus M. (Pseudomegatherium), which includes M. (P.) tarijense, M. (P.) elenense, M. (P.) urbinai, and new species from the northern Andes. Large species of sloths such as Megatherium (Megatherium) americanum, Lestodon sp., and Scelidotherium leptocephalum that are typical of the Argentinian Pampas are absent in Peru. A peculiar new megalonychid was discovered in the north coast region (Cupisnique desert) and in the Andes near Lake Titicaca at Casa del Diablo cave. 14C dating indicates that most of fossil mammals in Peru are Lujanian in age. Along the coast and probably in Amazonia, Xenarthra are found in open localities, in contrast to the Andean region in which most specimens are preserved in caves. In Peru, and all over South America, large Xenarthra did not survive beyond the beginning of the Holocene.

Sunken Fields and Prehispanic Subsistence on the Peruvian Coast

A series of hypotheses concerning the subsistence role of prehistoric sunken field agriculture are developed and evaluated in light of distributional studies of sunken fields along the entire Peruvian coast and excavations at one sunken field locality in the Chilca Valley. Our data suggest that (1) sunken fields occupy distinctive natural topographic lows; (2) sunken field agriculture developed late in the prehispanic sequence; (3) sunken field cultivation was a minor field system which, except at Chilca, was never extended to anywhere near the limits of its small potential; and (4) the factors which stimulated the initial construction of sunken fields at Chilca remain poorly understood.

Population Centers of the Rimac Valley of Peru

This Article is intended less as a descriptive piece on the archaeology of the Rimac Valley than it is as a single-valley application of various conclusions reached by Richard P. Schaedel in his Major Ceremonial and Population Centers in Northern Peru (1951). Schaedel, in a broad synthetic study of major ruins on the North Coast of Peru, comes to several interesting conclusions on the “urban revolution” in that region. The author, who was already engaged in a survey of the Rimac, with the focus on the coastal cultures from sea level to the 1000-meter line, felt impelled to shift the emphasis of his survey from straight description to a Central Coast application of Schaedel's North Coast findings. This was a fairly easy task, as the sites were already being analyzed both architecturally and ceramically.The Rimac, the “valley of Lima,” presents sufficient of both typical and atypical features of a Peruvian coastal valley to make the application of Schaedel's theories to a single valley at least fairly indicative of their validity for the entire Peruvian coast.

Geology of Northwest Peru

The oil fields of northwestern Peru occur in an area of much faulted Tertiary rocks, extending from the southern border of Ecuador (about 3° 30^prime south latitude) south about 225 miles (to about 6° south latitude). It is the northern end of a desert belt extending along the entire Peruvian coast, but near the northern border, merging rapidly with the semi-arid and humid forest zone of southern Ecuador. The presence of oil in this region has been known from a very early date, and in Colonial and pre-Colonial times, several of the larger oil seeps were worked for their pitch or brea. To-day there are three general districts where commercial production is obtained: the Zorritos district in the northern part, where production is derived from the lower Miocene or upper Oligocene; farther south, the Cabo Blanco-Lobitos district; and the Negritos-La Brea district. In these latter and more important fields, the oil is derived principally from Eocene sediments. The Tertiary of this region, which at present is the source of the entire Peruvian production, has a total thickness of about 25,000 feet. This section is exceptionally complete, generally marine and fossiliferous, and on the basis of detailed stratigraphic and paleontologic studies, it has been subdivided into about 14 mappable units or formations. The beds range in age from early Eocene to Pliocene. They rest either upon an incomplete development of Cretaceous, or, more generally, on older mountain rocks such as Pennsylvanian slates. These Pennsylvanian metamorphics, closely associated with a granite intrusion, form most of the mountain region toward the east and a few other outlying areas. The major structural features of the region are the main Andean or mountain ranges on the east, and a Pacific fault which closely follows the edge of the continental shelf on the west. In the intervening area, the Tertiary rocks have been locally folded into smaller anticlines and synclines and extensively block faulted. The rocks are everywhere much faulted, and the local structure consists principally of many small fault blocks. Most of the faults are normal. End_Page 1------------------------------ Fig. 1A. Geological map of Northwest Peru. Fig. 1B. Profile showing continental shelf and adjoining land mass at Parinas Point. End_Page 2------------------------------

SANITARY CONDITIONS IN PERU

IN SPEAKING of the sanitary conditions in Peru it is difficult to know where to begin. In my case, I had heard of various epidemics existing in this country, but had no definite conception of what the conditions might be or the true nature of the causes. Having been in Panama in the capacity of Chief Sanitary Inspector of the Canal Zone and later as Assistant Chief Health Officer, I had acquired the usual highly critical frame of mind for the presence of mosquitoes and flies, as well as the almost extreme exactions for general cleanliness. Those who are familiar with sanitary conditions of the Canal Zone will appreciate what this means. As a rule, the Pacific Coast steamers call at the first port in the north of Peru, which is the famous port of Paita. The cause of this fame will be discussed later. The harbor of Paita is one of the best on the coast of Peru, and is the only available port for the Department of Piura. It is protected from rough weather and heavy swells by a point of land on the west side of the harbor, which -forms a semi-lunar bay in which vessels, large and small, can at all times lie tranquilly at anchor. Here one gets his first impressions of what sanitary conditions in Peru may be. Paita is a town of about 3,500 inhabitants, the population having remained about the same for the last 20 years. It lies on the beach and has for its background the steep, cliff-like edge of the Paita plateau. The plateau is about 300 feet above sea level and is an arid desert, where rain falls only in limited quantity and at one season of the year, March and April, and sometimes only in appreciable quantity once in a cycle of years. This aridness is characteristic of the entire Peruvian coast. For water, all the valleys are dependent upon the streams and rivers coming down from the melting snows of the mountains. Well water is available in some sections, but in most places towns and. villages are dependent for the water supply upon the rivers, on the banks of which nearly all are located.