Entheseal Changes Research Articles

Osteoarthritis: A problematic disease in past human populations. A dependence between entheseal changes, body size, age, sex, and osteoarthritic changes development.

Osteoarthritis is a problematic trait in terms of etiology and interpretation in past human populations. The relationships between osteoarthritic changes (osteophytes, porosity, and eburnation) and entheseal changes, body mass, stature, bone massiveness, sex, and age on the basis of skeletal material from Łekno (Poland) are analyzed here. Entheses were the strongest contributor to the prediction of osteophyte expression and when all types of changes and all joints were taken together. Stature demonstrates a negative dependence on porosity. When each joint was analyzed separately, entheses were the strongest contributor to the prediction of arthritis expression in the wrist and hip. Age was the strongest contributor to the prediction of arthritis expression in the elbow. Body mass, stature, bone massiveness, and sex had no effect on osteoarthritic changes in any of the examined joints. The results of the present study suggest an important dependence between entheses and osteoarthritic changes. Other factors had little to no effect on differences in OA severity. These results do not dispel all doubts but enrich knowledge about the effect of etiological factors on osteoarthritic change formation. This knowledge is essential for proper, reliable interpretation of osteoarthritic changes in the context of past human biology, ecology, and behavior.

Exploring life patterns using entheseal changes in equids: Application of a new method on unworked specimens

AbstractUnderstanding changes in the relationships between humans and horses through time and across geographic space is of great interest for researchers due to the fundamental economic, social, and symbolic importance of the horse for human societies. Altered muscular or ligamentous attachments serve as a means to explore this subject. Entheseal changes (ECs) are widely employed in biological anthropology for reconstructions of past activity patterns in human groups. This kind of analysis is far more rare in zooarchaeology, but interest has been increasing over the past decade, particularly for reindeer and equid remains.This contribution introduces a new recording protocol focused on 23 entheses located on the equine appendicular skeleton. In this contribution, this protocol is applied to unworked equids of various species and from diverse contexts in order to develop a baseline to gauge the extent of such changes for broad archaeological application. Bone formation and erosion of the surface of the attachment and, in some cases, its margins are considered. Intraobserver and interobserver tests reveal a general level of agreement of between 70% and 80% with variations from one enthesis to another. Examination of 27 complete skeletons of captive equids with no history of human use is investigated here to identify possible confounding factors, apart from activity, that influence the development of ECs. This study shows ECs to be age‐related and influenced by sexual dimorphism. Both aetiologies must be considered in future analyses. Some attachments in these specimens appear not to be influenced by sex and/or age at death, and this is promising. It is clear, however, that further studies of equids with documented activities are necessary to achieve a better appreciation of the factors responsible for the appearance of ECs before being applied to archaeological remains.

Metric and non-metric guides for the determination between fore- and hindlimb phalanges of Rangifer tarandus

Phalanges are a great untapped resource in the zooarchaeology of Rangifer tarandus. The utilization of this resource, however, is constrained by a current inability to consistently differentiate fore- from hindlimb phalanges in a mixed assemblage. The ability to separate and identify forelimb and hindlimb phalanx 1 (PI) and phalanx 2 (PII), as well as to recognize and identify other small bones of the hoof, leads to great opportunities for archaeologists. In large scale-analysis, this capacity allows a greater ability to determine minimum number of individuals and assess butchery and transport practices. In the examination of individual life histories of Rangifer tarandus, these designations allow a more precise study of pathology and entheseal change, which can shed light on adaptation, foraging strategy, and human-animal interactions. This study presents qualitative and quantitative methods for the differentiation of PI and PII of the fore- and hindlimbs and describes other bones of the hoof. Metric techniques were developed to differentiate fore- from hindlimb phalanges using non-invasive, non-destructive, and simple methods. The efficacy and accuracy of these methods were assessed using blind testing by students and staff. The average success rates of metric analysis yielded 87% accuracy for determinations of fore- versus hindlimb PI and 92% accuracy for determination of fore- versus hindlimb PII. These results show that this method could benefit researchers working with Rangifer tarandus remains.

A three-dimensional digital microscopic investigation of entheseal changes as skeletal activity markers.

The current article explores the effectiveness of entheseal changes (EC) as skeletal activity markers by testing the correlation between such changes and cross-sectional geometric (CSG) properties while controlling for the effect of age and body size. The originality of the article lies in capturing EC in a continuous quantitative manner using three-dimensional microscopy. Roughness and bone resorption were recorded on Zones 1 and 2 of three humeral entheses (subscapularis, supraspinatus, and infraspinatus) in a documented sample of 29 male skeletons. Our analysis found that merely 5.91% of the partial correlations between EC and CSG properties were statistically significant. In addition, two unexpected patterns were identified, namely a higher number of significant correlations on the left side entheses compared to the right side ones, and a higher number of correlations between minimum roughness and CSG properties compared to mean and maximum roughness. These patterns are the inverse of what we would expect if activity had exerted an important effect on EC expression. Therefore, they support the lack of association between EC and habitual activity, even though various factors potentially affecting the above results are discussed.

Entheseal changes in ancient Egyptians from the pyramid builders of Giza—Old Kingdom

AbstractEntheseal changes are distinct skeletal markings that occur where a muscle, tendon, or ligament inserts into bone cortex, in response to many factors including physical activity. Therefore, entheseal changes have been frequently used to reconstruct habitual life activities of ancient populations. The present study examines a sample of 195 ancient Egyptians from Giza—Old Kingdom (2700–2190 BC), the period of pyramid builders. The material consists of two burials that were identified as belonging to individuals of different socio‐economic classes: workers and high officials. This distinction between the socio‐economic classes is based on evidence including location and design of cemeteries, contents of goods, and writings and drawings on tombs. Entheseal changes at 14 sites, representing the main articulations of the body, were examined to assess any association between entheseal expression and physical activities. The results of this study suggest that the frequency and severity of entheseal changes varied between workers and high officials, and between males and females. As expected, males exhibited higher levels of entheseal expression, suggesting sexual dimorphism in activity. No clear bilateral asymmetry was observed, except for in female high officials, who exhibited higher levels of entheseal expression at the right hand. A direct comparison of frequencies of entheseal changes between the two social classes, by sex and age, revealed that male and female workers had higher levels of entheseal expression than high officials, suggesting a division in labour. Together, these data suggest that entheseal changes can be used, cautiously, to study activity patterns in ancient Egyptian populations.

Acts of life: Assessing entheseal change as an indicator of social differentiation in postmedieval Aalst (Belgium)

AbstractLower levels of physical activity are often linked to higher socio‐economic status (SES) in past societies. As an activity marker, changes at muscle attachment sites known as entheseal changes (ECs) have been used with varying efficacy. This study investigates this proposed link between EC as a physical activity marker and SES within one well‐defined temporo‐geographic context. EC data from 16 entheses in three skeletal collections from the postmedieval town of Aalst, Belgium, were evaluated using the Coimbra method. The skeletal assemblages represent distinct socio‐economic groups, evidenced by historical and dietary isotope data. The Louis D'Haeseleerstraat sample represents lower class individuals (n = 46), the Hopmarkt sample middle‐class individuals (n = 110), and the Saint Martin's church (n = 13) higher class individuals. EC data are tested for correlation to status, age, and sex. EC patterns did not differ significantly between the SES groups at any entheses except the musculus (M.) iliopsoas and common extensor, where the higher class showed more EC. Within the populations, at the Hopmarkt, sexual differences were only observed in the Achilles tendon attachment, whereas at the Louis D'Haeseleerstraat, sexual differences were present in the M. triceps brachii, M. brachioradialis, and quadriceps entheses. Only some entheses showed a significant correlation with age, and these were inconsistent between populations. ECs are not a reliable indicator of SES in postmedieval Aalst. This could suggest that the hypothesis that the wealthy were less physically active oversimplifies the lives of people in the past. It could also suggest that EC is not a suitable proxy for physical activity, or that it cannot be used without in‐depth knowledge of the types of activities performed by various socio‐economic groups in addition to consideration of all other aetiological factors. This study illustrates the caution necessary when using EC as a proxy for social status in past societies.

The mechanical hypothesis of septal aperture formation tested in an early medieval population from Ostrów Lednicki (Poland).

The aetiology of septal aperture formation is still an open question. The influence of bone robusticity, osteoarthritis, osteoporosis, and the size and shape of ulnar processes has been discussed. Some researchers have shown that weaker muscles lead to greater joint hypermobility, the impingement of ulnar processes on the humeral lamina, and, consequently, septal aperture formation. Assuming this theory is correct, the question is whether flexion or extension or both play a role in septal lamina perforation. The aim of the study was to examine the mechanical hypothesis of septal aperture formation in samples of skeletal material derived from an early medieval cemetery in Ostrów Lednicki (Poland). A total of 136 pairs of bones (humeri and ulnae) were examined. Septal aperture was scored as present or absent. Entheseal changes in ulna were used as markers of activity patterns, especially involving elbow extension and flexion. Entheseal changes were assessed based on a three-point rating scale. A significant negative correlation between septal aperture and triceps muscles was noted in right bones in females (τ=-0.331) and in both sexes combined (τ=-0.322). The relationship between septal aperture and the brachialis muscle was positive but non-significant. This means that looser triceps lead to greater looseness of the elbow, greater protrusion of the olecranon process, and consequent septal aperture formation. Different results were obtained for the brachialis, which may suggest that forearm flexion does not significantly affect septal lamina perforation.

Horse riding and the shape of the acetabulum: Insights from the bioarchaeological analysis of early Hungarian mounted archers (10th century)

AbstractHorse riding is a human activity that has particularly interested bioanthropologists and paleopathologists working on the reconstruction of activities from skeletal changes in ancient populations. However, various sample and methodological limitations, such as the absence of direct evidence connecting the individuals and the activity, result in a lack of confidence regarding what changes should be included in the so‐called horse riding syndrome. Focusing on the ovalization of the acetabulum, regularly mentioned in literature, we analyzed comparative samples of presumed riders and non‐riders to evaluate its reliability for the identification of horse riding.We relied on a Hungarian Conquest period collection (10th century CE), including several individuals associated with horse riding equipment or horse bones in the graves. Direct and easily repeatable measurements were used to calculate an index of ovalization of the acetabulum (IOA). The index values were compared according to the presence or absence of archaeological deposit. An extra‐group of presumed non‐riders from the documented Luís Lopes Skeletal Collection (Lisbon) was used for comparison.Early Hungarians buried with horse‐related grave goods exhibited a higher overall IOA compared with the ones without and those known not to ride (p = 0.049 in the latter case, with left and right values combined).Our results suggest that the ovalization of the acetabulum may indeed be a promising indicator to be included in a set of markers for horse riding. The analysis of further different types of pathological and nonpathological skeletal changes (e.g., joint and entheseal changes) will contribute to a more reliable identification of horse riders in anthropological collections.

Is Bone Elevation in Hand Muscle Attachments Associated with Biomechanical Stress? A Histological Approach to an Anthropological Question.

In anthropological sciences, muscle attachments are typically utilized for reconstructing the physical activities of past human populations. This approach relies on the concept that entheseal bone morphology is influenced by cumulative biomechanical stress. A fundamental criterion for assessing the stage of entheseal change involves the proportion of elevated bone area. However, it is not yet clear if bone elevation is associated with biomechanical forces exerted during physical activity, while the histology of the entheses of the human hand, the least-bodyweight-bearing anatomical area, is not fully investigated. Multiple previous studies on entheses have concluded that the concentration of calcified fibrocartilage reflects the level of applied forces. On this basis, if hand entheseal surface elevation was associated with the level of biomechanical stress, then a greater amount of calcified fibrocartilage would be expected in entheses' central and more projecting bone areas. More importantly, individual entheses with a greater proportion of elevated bone areas would present a higher total concentration of calcified fibrocartilage. To test these hypotheses, this pilot study conducted a histological quantitative analysis on two thumb entheses of four fully-documented body donors. Across individuals, all central entheseal regions presented greater calcified fibrocartilage, while the entheses showing additional bone elevation in their marginal areas comprised substantially higher total values. The observations of this small-scale pilot study support the concept that interindividual differences in entheseal bone morphology are related to varying levels of biomechanical loading. Furthermore, they encourage future research to compile larger sample sizes, for comparing individuals with distinct lifelong activities. Anat Rec, 302:1093-1103, 2019. © 2018 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Development of a Preliminary Ultrasonographic Enthesitis Score in Psoriatic Arthritis - GRAPPA Ultrasound Working Group.

To assess the performance of various sonographic elemental entheseal lesions in distinguishing between psoriatic arthritis (PsA) and controls to inform the development of a novel sonographic enthesitis score for PsA. A total of 100 age- and sex-matched individuals (50 PsA and 50 controls) were evaluated. Eleven entheseal sites were scanned bilaterally according to a standardized protocol by 2 sonographers. Based on the Outcome Measures in Rheumatology (OMERACT) definition of sonographic enthesitis, the following lesions were assessed: structural entheseal changes (hypoechogenicity), thickening, bone erosion, enthesophytes, calcification, and Doppler signal, in addition to bursitis and bone irregularities. The images were read by 2 readers blinded to the clinical information. A series of logistic regression models were used to find the optimal combination of entheseal sites and elementary lesions that distinguished PsA from controls. Mean age was 55 ± 10 years (59% males). The optimal model that distinguished PsA from controls included 5 elementary lesions (enthesophytes, Doppler signal, erosions, thickening, and hypoechogenicity) and 6 entheseal sites (patellar ligament insertions into the distal patella and tibial tuberosity, Achilles tendon and plantar fascia insertions into the calcaneus, common extensor tendon insertion into lateral epicondyle, and supraspinatus insertion into the superior facet of the humerus). The area under the receiver-operating characteristic curve for this model was 0.93 (95% CI 0.88-0.98). We identified potential elemental ultrasonographic abnormalities and entheseal sites that could distinguish PsA and controls. This information will contribute to the development of a new sonographic score for assessment of enthesitis in patients with PsA.

Entheseal involvement in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus: an ultrasound study.

The main objective of this study is to explore the prevalence and distribution of entheseal US changes in a cohort of SLE patients, taking as controls a group including both PsA patients and healthy subjects. The secondary objective is to investigate the correlation between the US findings and the clinical and serological data in SLE patients. Clinical and US assessment of quadriceps, patellar and Achilles tendons, and plantar fascia entheses were performed by independent rheumatologists on 65 patients with SLE, 50 patients with PsA and 50 healthy subjects. US findings were identified according to the OMERACT definitions. In SLE patients, the correlation between the US changes and the clinical and laboratory findings was evaluated. US revealed one or more abnormalities in at least one enthesis in 44 out of 65 SLE patients (67.7%), 47 out of 50 PsA patients (94.0%) and 22 out of 50 healthy subjects (44.0%). In SLE patients, US findings indicating active inflammation were significantly more frequently detected than in healthy subjects (P < 0.001). The distal enthesis of the patellar tendon was the most commonly involved. The presence of power Doppler signal at the enthesis was an independent predictor of SLE disease activity (SLEDAI-2k P < 0.001, β = 0.52; musculoskeletal-BILAG P < 0.001, β = 0.56). The burden of entheseal sonographic changes was significantly higher in SLE patients than in healthy subjects, especially as regards active inflammation. The presence of power Doppler signal at the enthesis may represent a potential biomarker of SLE disease activity.

A Comparison of Two Methods for Recording Entheseal Change on a Post‐Medieval Urban Skeletal Collection from Aalst (Belgium)

This research compares two current methods for recording bony changes at muscle attachment sites, called entheseal changes (EC); the Mariotti method and the Coimbra method, to evaluate the concordance and comparability of results in a post‐medieval skeletal collection from Aalst, Belgium (n = 116). For both methods, the EC scores produce broadly similar patterns, are symmetrical and differ between age groups. Statistical differences between the upper and lower limb and the lower limb of males and females only occur in the Mariotti method. With careful consideration of the influence of different EC score ranges, the results from the two methods can generally be compared.

Morphological appearance of muscle attachment sites on lower limbs: Horse riders versus agricultural population

AbstractThe present study analysed macromorphological characteristics of the muscle attachment sites of lower limbs, hypothesising that everyday physical activities influence the macromorphology of the bone at the entheses. Our specific goals were to investigate how different habitual activities influence the morphology of the muscle attachment sites of lower limbs in two different medieval populations from Serbia: agricultural versus horse‐riding populations.The skeletal material used in this study comprised two different populations: a Medieval Avarian population of horse riders from two necropolises (Pionirska Ulica and Čik, in Bečeј) and an agricultural population represented by two sites—Medieval Vinča near Belgrade and Sirmium (Sremska Mitrovica), Site No. 85.The macromorphological analysis of the entheseal changes (ECs) encompassed 10 entheses of the lower limbs. Morphological appearance of entheses was evaluated using the visual reference system proposed by Villotte.The results revealed an age dependence in one muscle of the lower limbs (Musculus gluteus maximus) among the agricultural population, suggested by more pronounced ECs in the older age categories. Among the Avarian population, more pronounced EC scores were recorded in the older age groups for the attachment site of Musculus soleus, while in the case of the iliopsoas muscle, ECs were more common in younger ages. The results revealed more pronounced EC scores in males in both populations. Between the riders and agricultural populations, results indicated that only the adductor muscles which are specific for horse riders were singled out, showing a more pronounced ECs in the horse riders' population.Results of our study showed that the level of physical activity mostly increased with age. In both investigated populations, EC scores were more pronounced in males compared with females. Moreover, we noted that the evaluation of entheses of adductor muscles could provide the most reliable criteria for the identification of riders among the general population.

Portuguese Women’s Activity in the Past: Comparing Entheseal Changes Through Time

Portuguese Women’s Activity in the Past: Comparing Entheseal Changes Through Time

Entheseal changes among late Holocene hunter-gatherers from the southern extreme of La Plata basin (Argentina)

Different aspects of bone morphology have been studied worldwide with the purpose of explaining their causative factors and if they are suitable for inferring activities from past societies. Among them, entheseal changes have been widely analyzed and several researchers agree on their multifactorial etiology. The main objective of this work is to understand patterns of variation in entheseal changes in a sample of adult individuals of both sexes from late Holocene complex hunter-gatherers that inhabited the southern point of the La Plata basin. For that purpose, entheseal ruggedness at fibrous and fibrocartilaginous entheses is analyzed in relation to age, sex, body size, midshaft robusticity indices (as a probable proxy of physical activity levels), and archaeological site variability, through generalized linear models. The results show that physical activity, sex and age are the most important factors in determining entheseal morphology. Generally, high levels of entheseal changes were found among males, in older and large-bodied individuals, and among robust anatomical units. However, some entheses showed an inverse pattern. This leads us to propose that social (sexual and age division of labor) as well as biological factors (hormones, genetic and degenerative changes) could have an influence on entheseal changes. No differences were found between fibrous and fibrocartilaginous entheses.

Entheseal changes and demographic/health indicators in the upper extremity of modern Americans: Associations with age and physical activity

AbstractThe purpose of this study is to further the understanding of the relationship between age and entheseal changes by using trends in living Americans compared to skeletal remains of modern Americans, and applying the knowledge to the bioarchaeological record. Documentation of age, activity level, body mass index, stature, and body mass was combined with entheseal change scores gathered from the upper extremity to statistically test the relationship between age and entheseal change with and without controls of documented demographic and health factors. An active subsample was constructed using self‐reported repetitive activities and discernment of position within stated career. Fibrocartilaginous entheses reported in the literature to be better suited to estimate occupation were separated from other entheses. A series of Cochran–Mantel–Hanzel and analysis of variance‐based tests were applied to the data. Interobserver reliability was also examined with a linear‐weighted Cohen's kappa. Statistical analysis shows only 1 enthesis has a significant positive relationship with age and 2 with activity. Body mass index and body mass were associated with 9 entheses that were spread across the occupation‐associated fibrocartilaginous entheses and all other entheses. Interobserver reliability ranged from low to substantial agreement. Interobserver error estimates suggest some entheses are more reliable than others. Results provide little support for a relationship between age and entheseal changes and activity and entheseal changes, which partially coincides with previous research. An increase in activity with age in our sample, around the age of retirement, mirrors trends in living Americans and supports our conclusions. For bioarchaeologists, these results suggest interpretations of entheses should be cautiously applied and revolve around body size rather than activity levels.

Variaciones del terreno y cambios entesiales en poblaciones prehispánicas de Córdoba (Argentina)

En años recientes se ha discutido si los cambios entesiales son sólo producto de movimientos físicos repetitivos o de actividades que generan sobrecarga. De acuerdo con Acosta et al. (2017) su manifestación en los miembros inferiores estaría influenciada por las características morfológicas del terreno, con una menor frecuencia de cambios entesiales entre los individuos de terrenos montañosos, debido a una mejor adaptación a las cargas biomecánicas. El objetivo del presente trabajo es evaluar la frecuencia de cambios entesiales para una muestra arqueológica (61 individuos) de las regiones de Sierras y Llanuras de la provincia de Córdoba (Argentina), aplicando dos metodologías de registro; a la vez que comparar estos resultados con los obtenidos previamente para cambios degenerativos de las articulaciones. Interesa, además, discutir los resultados en relación con la propuesta de Acosta et al. (2017). Se calcularon prevalencias porcentuales de la presencia de cambios en cuatro entesis de miembros inferiores y se realizaron tests estadísticos (Odds ratios, X2). Los resultados sugieren que la afectación sería algo mayor en Llanuras, aunque ello podría explicarse tanto desde un punto de vista adaptativo a la carga biomecánica, como desde una visión más clásica referida a la repetición de actividades físicas exigentes.

Cambios entesiales en Portugal: un estudio diacrónico utilizando el nuevo Método Coimbra

El objetivo de este trabajo es estudiar las variaciones en la frecuencia de cambios entesiales a través del tiempo en Portugal para evaluar el efecto del aumento de la urbanización y la especialización laboral, aplicando un método de registro biológicamente apropiado, el llamado nuevo método Coimbra (Henderson et al. 2016a). La muestra analizada está compuesta por 138 individuos adultos provenientes de ocho sitios arqueológicos del actual territorio de Portugal, y con cronologías medievales y modernas. Se realizaron cálculos de prevalencias y de odds ratios, así como un test exacto de Fisher para los cambios registrados en once entesis de miembros superiores e inferiores. Los resultados sugieren que la actividad es un factor explicativo de los cambios entesiales registrados, pero que asimismo se deben considerar otros factores, ya que los diferentes perfiles de sexo y edad también contribuyen a las distintas tendencias. Además, el tamaño variable de las muestras de cada subgrupo también aporta a las altas frecuencias de algunos cambios. Sin embargo, este enfoque es fundamental para entender las tendencias temporales de los cambios entesiales.

Una aproximación estadística al estudio de los cambios entésicos empleados para evaluar diferencias sexuales en restos humanos

El estudio de los cambios entésicos en poblaciones pasadas ha sido abordado a través de varios análisis estadísticos. Sin embargo, esta variabilidad metodológica dificulta la comparación de los resultados. El objetivo de este trabajo es presentar y discutir los resultados de una serie de análisis estadísticos comúnmente adoptados para el estudio de diferencias sexuales en los cambios entésicos con el fin de sugerir el método más eficaz. Para ello se aplicaron los siguientes análisis: distribución de frecuencias, cálculo de medias aritméticas y desvíos estándar, prueba de chi-cuadrado, U de Mann-Whitney, t de Student, correlación simple y parcial de Spearman y modelos lineales generalizados. La muestra analizada está integrada por 40 individuos de ambos sexos provenientes de poblaciones cazadoras-recolectoras del humedal del Paraná inferior. La mayoría de los análisis mostraron diferencias significativas entre ambos sexos. Sin embargo, debido a la etiología multifactorial de los cambios entésicos, se recomiendan aquellas pruebas estadísticas donde se puedan ingresar covariables, como ser las correlaciones parciales o los modelos lineales generalizados.

Cambios y continuidades en la movilidad humana a finales del holoceno tardío: cambios entésicos, lesiones articulares e isótopos estables en el sur de Mendoza

La variabilidad en la movilidad humana es uno de los tópicos arqueológicos más abordados en el estudio de las sociedades del pasado. En el sur de la provincia de Mendoza las investigaciones han estudiado la movilidad en el marco de procesos como la introducción de la producción de alimentos y la intensificación en la explotación de los recursos (ca. 2000 años AP). Si bien se ha logrado entender gran parte de esta movilidad a través de los isótopos de ?18O, es necesario ajustar estos patrones con otros indicadores que puedan observarse a nivel del individuo. En el presente trabajo se articulan estos datos isotópicos con información derivada del análisis de lesiones degenerativas articulares y cambios entésicos que permitan discutir las estrategias de subsistencia y movilidad que implementaron las poblaciones que habitaron la región a finales del Holoceno tardío. Se analizaron muestras osteológicas humanas de diez sitios arqueológicos de la cuenca del Atuel (n=25). Se comparó un entierro múltiple mezclado con entierros aislados e individualizados, que presentan cronologías posteriores a los 2000 años AP. Los patrones de actividad identificados indican grupos que mantienen una alta movilidad para momentos posteriores a la introducción de los cultígenos en el área. Partiendo de un modelo dicotómico ideal (cazadores-recolectores móviles/agricultores sedentarios) pueden entenderse estas tendencias como el resultado de estrategias que combinan a través del tiempo y del espacio, lo productivo y lo extractivo.