Function Of Enhancer Of Zeste Homolog 2 Research Articles

Phosphorylation of EZH2 Activates STAT3 Signaling via STAT3 Methylation and Promotes Tumorigenicity of Glioblastoma Stem-like Cells

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) displays cellular hierarchies harboring a subpopulation of stem-like cells (GSCs). Enhancer of Zeste Homolog 2 (EZH2), the lysine methyltransferase of Polycomb repressive complex 2, mediates transcriptional repression of prodifferentiation genes in both normal and neoplastic stem cells. An oncogenic role of EZH2 as a transcriptional silencer is well established; however, additional functions of EZH2 are incompletely understood. Here, we show that EZH2 binds to and methylates STAT3, leading to enhanced STAT3 activity by increased tyrosine phosphorylation of STAT3. The EZH2-STAT3 interaction preferentially occurs in GSCs relative to non-stem bulk tumor cells, and it requires a specific phosphorylation of EZH2. Inhibition of EZH2 reverses the silencing of Polycomb target genes and diminishes STAT3 activity, suggesting therapeutic strategies.

Abstract 5350: Enhancer of zeste homolog 2 (EZH2) promotes progression of cholangiocarcinoma by regulating cell cycle and apoptosis.

Abstract Background: Enhancer of zeste homolog 2 (EZH2) is a catalytic subunit of the polycomb repressive complex 2 (PRC2). When present in PRC2, EZH2 catalyzes trimethylation on lysine 27 residue of histone H3(H3K27Me3), resulting in epigenetic silencing of gene expression and cancer progression. Here, we investigated the expression and the function of EZH2 in intrahepatic and extrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma (ICC and ECC). Methods: The influence of EZH2 on cell growth and apoptosis was assessed by knockdown experiments using siRNA in cholangiocarcinoma cell lines, RBE and TFK-1. Target genes of EZH2 in cholangiocarcinoma cell lines were searched by real time PCR. The clinical significance of EZH2 in 84 cholangiocarcinoma patients (ICC and ECC in 45 and 41, respectively) who underwent a curative surgery was examined by immunohistochemistry. Results: In vitro analysis, a knockdown of EZH2 reduced cell growth and induced G1 arrest, and induced apoptosis confirmed by Annexin V staining and increasing sub-G1 population of two cholangiocarcinoma cell lines. Moreover, a knockdown of EZH2 increased the expression of p16INK4A and p27KIP1, in real time PCR. In immunohistochemical study, The upregulation of EZH2 was correlated with tumor diameter (P = 0.0103) in ICC, lymph node metastasis (P=0.0292) in ECC, and Ki67 index in both ICC (P=0.0364) and ECC (P=0.0017). In addition, EZH2 expression was correlated with the poor prognosis in both ICC (P=0.0447) and ECC (P=0.0227). Conclusion: The current study demonstrates that the high expression of EZH2 results in acceleration of cell cycle and anti-apoptosis in vitro analysis, and is related to poor prognosis in patients with ICC or ECC by IHC study. These results suggest that EZH2 is a potential target for cholangiocarcinoma therapeutics. Citation Format: Shigeki Nakagawa, Hirohisa Okabe, Yasuo Sakamoto, Hiromitsu Hayashi, Daisuke Hashimoto, Hideyuki Kuroki, Katsunori Imai, Hidetoshi Nitta, Akira Chikamoto, Masayuki Watanabe, Toru Beppu, Hideo Baba. Enhancer of zeste homolog 2 (EZH2) promotes progression of cholangiocarcinoma by regulating cell cycle and apoptosis. [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the 104th Annual Meeting of the American Association for Cancer Research; 2013 Apr 6-10; Washington, DC. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2013;73(8 Suppl):Abstract nr 5350. doi:10.1158/1538-7445.AM2013-5350

Polycomb-independent activity of EZH2 in castration resistant prostate cancer

Epigenetic regulators represent a new class of therapeutic targets for cancer [1]. Substantial studies suggest that the enhancer of zeste homolog 2 (EZH2) is one of such promising targets [2-4]. The current model of EZH2 oncogenic activity primarily focuses on its function as a subunit of Polycomb repressive complex 2 (PRC2), which silences gene expression via EZH2 histone methyltransferase activity [5,6]. Using a genome-wide approach we found that the oncogenic function of EZH2 in castration resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) is independent of its role as a transcriptional repressor. Instead, it involves the ability of EZH2 to act as a co-activator for critical transcription factors including the androgen receptor (AR). This functional switch is dependent on phosphorylation of EZH2, and requires an intact methyltransferase domain. Given that the loss-of-function mutations of EZH2 were observed in myelodysplastic syndrome and acute leukemia [7,8], our discovery of the non-PRC2 function of EZH2 in CRPC raises the potential to develop inhibitors that specifically target the EZH2 activation function while sparing its PRC2 repressive function to avoid the potential hematologic side effects. In addition, our finding that EZH2 cooperates with AR-associated complexes and requires phosphorylation to support CRPC growth suggests novel combination therapies for the treatment of metastatic, hormone-refractory prostate cancer.

EZH2 Oncogenic Activity in Castration-Resistant Prostate Cancer Cells Is Polycomb-Independent

Epigenetic regulators represent a promising new class of therapeutic targets for cancer. Enhancer of zeste homolog 2 (EZH2), a subunit of Polycomb repressive complex 2 (PRC2), silences gene expression via its histone methyltransferase activity. We found that the oncogenic function of EZH2 in cells of castration-resistant prostate cancer is independent of its role as a transcriptional repressor. Instead, it involves the ability of EZH2 to act as a coactivator for critical transcription factors including the androgen receptor. This functional switch is dependent on phosphorylation of EZH2 and requires an intact methyltransferase domain. Hence, targeting the non-PRC2 function of EZH2 may have therapeutic efficacy for treating metastatic, hormone-refractory prostate cancer.

Reversing Metabolic and Epigenetic Cellular Alterations to Overcome Chemo-Resistance in Aggressive B Cell Lymphomas

Abstract 1305Cancer cells exist in a stressed environment, mainly due to lack of nutrients and oxygen, particularly during chemotherapy, and rely on metabolic homeostatic regulatory mechanisms for protection against these lethal challenges. Increasing glucose metabolism and continuous reactive oxygen species (ROS) production is one strategy of metabolic adaptation utilized by tumor cells to relieve this stress. Thioredoxin interacting protein (TXNIP) is a negative regulator for both redox thioredoxin (ROS production) and cellular glucose uptake, not well understood but found to be repressed in various cancers, including diffuse large B-cell lymphomas (DLBCL), the most common form of non-Hodgkin lymphoma that continues increasing in incidence and remains incurable in many cases, primarily due to development of chemo-resistance. The molecular mechanisms by which TXNIP expression is down-regulated during cancer progression and chemo-resistance development have not been completely elucidated. Since key gene silencing events have now been identified in the pathogenesis of DLBCL, recent therapeutic interest has focused on dysregulated histone modifications as potentially important therapeutic targets, for developing strategies that can reactivate silenced tumor suppressor genes. Enhancer of zeste homolog 2 (EZH2), the catalytic subunit of the polycomb repressive complex 2 (PRC2), is a highly conserved histone methyltransferase that targets lysine-27 of histone H3 (H3K27). Studies in human tumors show that EZH2 is frequently over-expressed in a wide variety of tumors, including lymphomas. More importantly, recent studies using whole-genome sequencing in primary DLBCL, identified frequent mutations in the EZH2 gene that leads to critical gene silencing in DLBCL pathophysiology.Our study showed that EZH2 is either over-expressed or mutated in representative DLBCL cell lines and primary DLBCL cells, and that down-regulation of EZH2 with siRNA leads to the reactivation of TXNIP, with subsequent inhibition of tumor cell growth and survival mediated through both thioredoxin and glucose metabolism in DLBCL. We also found that histone deacetylation (HDAC) is also involved in EZH2-mediated silencing of TXNIP in DLBCL. Pharmacologic agents aimed at reactivating TXNIP genes include histone methylation inhibitor 3-Deazaneplanocin A (DZNep) that targets EZH2, as well as HDAC inhibitor Vorinostat. DZNep is currently the only histone methylation inhibitor that is commercially available. Our data indicated that DZNep is highly effective in inhibiting cell growth in various DLBCL cell lines, particularly in chemo-resistant DLBCL cell lines. Vorinostat, on the other hand, has been a good drug and is currently in clinical trial for relapsed DLBCL and has been FDA approved for treating cutaneous T-cell lymphoma patients. Our data showed synergistic activity of DZNep and Vorinostat in reactivating TXNIP gene expression and inhibiting DLBCL cell growth and survival.We also discovered that EZH2 controls constitutive NF-κB activity through both, the canonical and alternative NF-κB pathways in DLBCL. This function of EZH2 is independent of its histone methyltransferase activity. These findings reveal that EZH2 and NF-κB, the two oncogenic factors display functional crosstalk in DLBCL cells. Our findings have indicated that deregulated EZH2 leads to constitutive NF-kB activation and to epigenetic silencing of TXNIP, resulting in uncontrolled tumor cell growth and survival mediated through both thioredoxin and glucose metabolism in DLBCL, and that targeting this pathway represents a novel, rational, and effective therapeutic approach to selectively reverse chemoresistance in DLBCL patients, particularly relapsed/refractory patients. Disclosures:No relevant conflicts of interest to declare.

Notch1 intracellular domain increases cytoplasmic EZH2 levels during early megakaryopoiesis

Notch pathway is a well-known factor in the development of lymphoid lineage. However, its role in the myeloid lineage has remained ambiguous. We looked into the effect of Notch1 on the megakaryocytic lineage commitment and found an increase in megakaryocyte-specific lineage markers upon transfection with Notch1 intracellular domain (NICD). This effect was mediated by Akt whereby constitutive activation of Akt increased the megakaryocyte markers, whereas inhibition of Akt signalling reduced these marker levels. Along with the change in differentiation status, NICD-induced initiation of early megakaryopoiesis was accompanied by an increased cytoplasmic enhancer of zeste homolog-2 (EZH2) expression. This process was found to be Akt-dependent, and inhibition or overexpression of Akt lead to concurrent changes in EZH2 levels. To elucidate the function of EZH2 in the cytoplasm, novel cytoplasmic interactors of EZH2 were identified by co-immunoprecipitation followed by matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization MS/MS-based protein identification, and thus, PDIA1 and LIM domain kinase-1 (LIMK1) were identified. Interaction of EZH2 with LIMK1 changed the activity of cofilin (a downstream target of LIMK1) towards actin filaments, thereby leading to lower filamentous actin content within these cells. Thus, Notch1 not only induces early megakaryopoiesis but also prepares these cells for subsequent morphological changes.

Abstract 5309: Understanding the function of EZH2 as a determinant of breast cancer invasion and metastasis

Abstract Breast cancer is the second most common cause of cancer-related deaths for women in the United States, and the mortality for those 20% of patients with recurrences and/or metastases is nearly 100%. EZH2 (Enhancer of Zeste Homolog 2), a Polycomb group protein that functions in transcriptional memory, is upregulated during progression from ductal carcinoma in situ to invasive carcinoma and distant metastasis. EZH2 protein is overexpressed in 55% of invasive breast carcinomas and women with tumors expressing high EZH2 have a worse disease free and overall survival than women with tumors expressing low EZH2. We hypothesize that EZH2 overexpression may give rise to breast cancers that are on a highly aggressive path from the outset and may enhance metastasis. To test our hypothesis, we have investigated the role of EZH2 in cell morphology, invasion and motility in vitro, and metastasis in vivo. Stable shRNA EZH2 knockdown was carried out in 3 breast cancer cell lines (MDA-MB-231, CAL51, SUM149) which normally express high levels of EZH2 and have motile and invasive abilities. EZH2 knockdown in all cell lines tested decreased their invasiveness using a modified Boyden chamber assay. Random motion motility assays using live cell imaging tracking on MDA-MB-231 vector and shEZH2 cells revealed that EZH2 knockdown significantly reduces the random motion average cell velocity of these cells. Concomitant with the effect of EZH2 knockdown in decreasing invasion and velocity of movement of breast cancer cells, we determined that EZH2 knockdown in MDA-MB-231 and SUM149 cells results in a morphological change and protein expression pattern consistent with a mesenchymal to epithelial transition (MET). Recent experiments have demonstrated that EZH2 knockdown in breast cancer cell lines decreases the levels of activated, phosphorylated p38 mitogen activated protein kinase (MAPK), a protein shown to regulate breast cancer cell motility and metastasis. The in vivo relevance is highlighted by our data showing that EZH2 knockdown in MDA-MB-231 cells significantly decreased the number of lung metastases per mouse, decreased the average size of lung metastases and decreased the proliferative index of the metastatic deposit as measured by decreased Ki67 immunostaining, when compared to controls. Decreased phosphorylated p38 staining has also been verified in the mouse xenograft lung metastases. Taken together, these data support a role for EZH2 in establishing rapid cell motion, invasion and metastasis in breast cancers. Experiments to further delineate the underlying mechanism and to determine the role of p38 in EZH2-mediated functions are underway. Citation Format: {Authors}. {Abstract title} [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the 103rd Annual Meeting of the American Association for Cancer Research; 2012 Mar 31-Apr 4; Chicago, IL. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2012;72(8 Suppl):Abstract nr 5309. doi:1538-7445.AM2012-5309

Enhancer of zeste homolog 2 (EZH2) in pediatric soft tissue sarcomas: first implications

Soft tissue sarcomas of childhood are a group of heterogeneous tumors thought to be derived from mesenchymal stem cells. Surgical resection is effective only in about 50% of cases and resistance to conventional chemotherapy is often responsible for treatment failure. Therefore, investigations on novel therapeutic targets are of fundamental importance. Deregulation of epigenetic mechanisms underlying chromatin modifications during stem cell differentiation has been suggested to contribute to soft tissue sarcoma pathogenesis. One of the main elements in this scenario is enhancer of zeste homolog 2 (EZH2), a methyltransferase belonging to the Polycomb group proteins. EZH2 catalyzes histone H3 methylation on gene promoters, thus repressing genes that induce stem cell differentiation to maintain an embryonic stem cell signature. EZH2 deregulated expression/function in soft tissue sarcomas has been recently reported. In this review, an overview of the recently reported functions of EZH2 in soft tissue sarcomas is given and the hypothesis that its expression might be involved in soft tissue sarcomagenesis is discussed. Finally, the therapeutic potential of epigenetic therapies modulating EZH2-mediated gene repression is considered.

Enhancer of zeste homolog 2: A potential target for tumor therapy

Enhancer of zeste homolog 2 (EZH2) is a subunit of the Polycomb-Repressive Complex 2 (PRC2), which catalyses the trimethylation of histone H3 on Lys 27 (H3K27) and involves in genes repression. EZH2 is amplified and overexpressed in a variety of cancers, including prostate and breast cancer. Overexpression of EZH2 has been associated with the invasion and progression of malignant cancers, especially with the progression of prostate cancer. Here, we review the structure and biological function of EZH2, especially focused on its activities in the tumorigenesis.

In Utero Exposure to Diethylstilbestrol (DES) or Bisphenol-A (BPA) Increases EZH2 Expression in the Mammary Gland: An Epigenetic Mechanism Linking Endocrine Disruptors to Breast Cancer

Diethylstilbestrol (DES) and bisphenol-A (BPA) are estrogen-like endocrine-disrupting chemicals that induce persistent epigenetic changes in the developing uterus. However, DES exposure in utero is also associated with an increased risk of breast cancer in adult women. Similarly, fetal exposure to BPA induces neoplastic changes in mammary tissue of mice. We hypothesized that epigenetic alterations would precede the increased risk of breast neoplasia after in utero exposure to endocrine disruptors. Enhancer of Zeste Homolog 2 (EZH2) is a histone methyltransferase that has been linked to breast cancer risk and epigenetic regulation of tumorigenesis. We examined the effect of BPA and DES on EZH2 expression and function in MCF-7 cells and in mammary glands of mice exposed in utero. DES and BPA treatment approximated human exposure. EZH2 functional activity was assessed by measuring histone H3 trimethylation. Treatment of MCF-7 cells with DES or BPA led to a 3- and 2-fold increase in EZH2 mRNA expression, respectively (p < 0.05) as well as increased EZH2 protein expression. Mice exposed to DES in utero showed a >2-fold increase in EZH2 expression in adult mammary tissue compared with controls (p < 0.05). EZH2 protein was elevated in mammary tissue of mice exposed to DES or BPA. Histone H3 trimethylation was increased in MCF-7 cells treated with BPA or DES. Similarly, mice exposed to BPA or DES in utero showed increased mammary histone H3 trimethylation. Developmental programming of EZH2 is a novel mechanism by which in utero exposure to endocrine disruptors leads to epigenetic regulation of the mammary gland.

Targeted Overexpression of EZH2 in the Mammary Gland Disrupts Ductal Morphogenesis and Causes Epithelial Hyperplasia

The Polycomb group protein enhancer of zeste homolog 2 (EZH2), which has roles during development of numerous tissues, is a critical regulator of cell type identity. Overexpression of EZH2 has been detected in invasive breast carcinoma tissue samples and is observed in human breast tissue samples of morphologically normal lobules up to 12 years before the development of breast cancer. The function of EZH2 during preneoplastic progression in the mammary gland is unknown. To investigate the role of EZH2 in the mammary gland, we targeted the expression of EZH2 to mammary epithelial cells using the mouse mammary tumor virus long terminal repeat. EZH2 overexpression resulted in aberrant terminal end bud architecture. By the age of 4 months, 100% of female mouse mammary tumor virus-EZH2 virgin mice developed intraductal epithelial hyperplasia resembling the human counterpart accompanied by premature differentiation of ductal epithelial cells and up-regulation of the luminal marker GATA-3. In addition, remodeling of the mammary gland after parturition was impaired and EZH2 overexpression caused delayed involution. Mechanistically, we found that EZH2 physically interacts with beta-catenin, inducing beta-catenin nuclear accumulation in mammary epithelial cells and activating Wnt/beta-catenin signaling. The biological significance of these data to human hyperplasias is demonstrated by EZH2 up-regulation and colocalization with beta-catenin in human intraductal epithelial hyperplasia, the earliest histologically identifiable precursor of breast carcinoma.

Genomic loss of microRNA-101 leads to overexpression of histone methyltransferase EZH2 in cancer.

Enhancer of zeste homolog 2 (EZH2) is a mammalian histone methyltransferase that contributes to the epigenetic silencing of target genes and regulates the survival and metastasis of cancer cells. EZH2 is overexpressed in aggressive solid tumors by mechanisms that remain unclear. Here we show that the expression and function of EZH2 in cancer cell lines are inhibited by microRNA-101 (miR-101). Analysis of human prostate tumors revealed that miR-101 expression decreases during cancer progression, paralleling an increase in EZH2 expression. One or both of the two genomic loci encoding miR-101 were somatically lost in 37.5% of clinically localized prostate cancer cells (6 of 16) and 66.7% of metastatic disease cells (22 of 33). We propose that the genomic loss of miR-101 in cancer leads to overexpression of EZH2 and concomitant dysregulation of epigenetic pathways, resulting in cancer progression.

Integration of Estrogen and Wnt Signaling Circuits by the Polycomb Group Protein EZH2 in Breast Cancer Cells

Essential for embryonic development, the polycomb group protein enhancer of zeste homolog 2 (EZH2) is overexpressed in breast and prostate cancers and is implicated in the growth and aggression of the tumors. The tumorigenic mechanism underlying EZH2 overexpression is largely unknown. It is believed that EZH2 exerts its biological activity as a transcription repressor. However, we report here that EZH2 functions in gene transcriptional activation in breast cancer cells. We show that EZH2 transactivates genes that are commonly targeted by estrogen and Wnt signaling pathways. We demonstrated that EZH2 physically interacts directly with estrogen receptor alpha and beta-catenin, thus connecting the estrogen and Wnt signaling circuitries, functionally enhances gene transactivation by estrogen and Wnt pathways, and phenotypically promotes cell cycle progression. In addition, we identified the transactivation activity of EZH2 in its two N-terminal domains and demonstrated that these structures serve as platforms to connect transcription factors and the Mediator complex. Our experiments indicated that EZH2 is a dual function transcription regulator with a dynamic activity, and we provide a mechanism for EZH2 in tumorigenesis.

Lentivirus-mediated RNA interference targeting enhancer of zeste homolog 2 inhibits hepatocellular carcinoma growth through down-regulation of stathmin

Enhancer of zeste homolog 2 (EZH2) has been shown to be overexpressed in hepatocellular (HCC). We investigated the potential role of EZH2 in HCC tumorigenesis and examined the usefulness of RNA interference (RNAi) targeting EZH2 as a form of HCC treatment. Lentivirus-mediated RNAi was employed to knock-down EZH2 expression in human hepatoma cells to study the function of EZH2 in tumorigenesis and evaluate the treatment efficacy. Lentivirus-mediated RNAi effectively reduced EZH2 expression. Suppression of EZH2 in HCC cells significantly reduced their growth rate in vitro and markedly diminished their tumorigenicity in vivo. Moreover, in a mice model of established large-sized HCC, we showed that intratumor injection of lentiviral (Lenti)-shRNA (short hairpin RNA) or siRNA (small interfering RNA) targeting EZH2 produced significant tumor regression. To understand its molecular mechanism of action, we employed proteomic profiling technique and found that stathmin 1 is the downstream target of EZH2, as Lenti-shEZH2 treatment decreased stathmin protein expression, and ectopic overexpression of stathmin prevented Lenti-shEZH2 mediated tumor growth inhibition. Results from our study suggested for the first time that EZH2 plays a key role in HCC tumorigenesis, and is a novel therapeutic target for HCC.