Enhance Water Quality Research Articles

Enhancing water quality monitoring through the integration of deep learning neural networks and fuzzy method

The escalating growth of the global population has led to degraded water quality, particularly in seawater environments. Water quality monitoring is crucial to understanding the dynamic changes and implementing effective management strategies. In this study, water samples from the southwestern regions of Iran were spatially analyzed in a GIS environment using geostatistical methods. Subsequently, a water quality map was generated employing large and small fuzzy membership functions. Additionally, advanced prediction models using neural networks were employed to forecast future water pollution trends. Fuzzy method results indicated higher pollution levels in the northern regions of the study area compared to the southern parts. Furthermore, the water quality prediction models demonstrated that the LSTM model exhibited superior predictive performance (R2 = 0.93, RMSE = 0.007). The findings also underscore the impact of urbanization, power plant construction (2010 to 2020), and inadequate urban wastewater management on water pollution in the studied region.

Application of Constructed Wetlands to Treat Sewage by the Government in China

This study examines the deployment of constructed wetlands in China, focusing on their efficacy in water purification and ecological restoration, with a case study on the city of Wuxi. Constructed wetlands, which utilize natural processes to treat wastewater, represent a sustainable alternative to conventional methods. Despite their benefits in enhancing water quality and local biodiversity, these systems pose significant challenges, notably in land use and socio-economic impacts. The research highlights the conflict between environmental initiatives and urban development, exacerbated by land scarcity and housing affordability issues. This paper proposes strategies for optimizing wetland design and suggests policy adjustments to balance ecological benefits with urban development needs, aiming for sustainable urban planning.

Water quality management in a tropical karstic system influenced by land use in Chiapas, Mexico

Urbanization and agricultural activities are increasingly threatening karstic systems and the water resources they provide, which are crucial for the livelihood of rural communities. Over the past decade, the Río Grande de Comitán-Lagos de Montebello (RGC-LM) watershed in Chiapas, Mexico, has experienced significant deterioration in water quality. The objective of this study was to analyze the water quality dynamics within the RGC-LM watershed and their potential interaction with land use change. We conducted assessments of the physicochemical and microbiological parameters across the lotic and lentic systems within the watershed over eight monitoring campaigns (from 2013 to 2020). Cluster Analysis (CA) and Principal Component Analysis (PCA) statistical approaches were performed to identify the main drivers of surface water quality variability. This approach aims to enhance water quality assessments within environmental management strategies, with the goal of promoting sustainable land-use practices aimed at protecting and improving water resources within the watershed. Our findings indicate that there is a substantial difference between the upper and lower watershed water quality. The good water quality conditions observed in the higher altitude lakes (mountain lakes) can be attributed to favorable topographical features, specific land use patterns, and effective conservation measures. In contrast, the lotic system in the middle watershed and the lentic water bodies located at lower altitudes (plain lakes) exhibit signs of water quality degradation due to inefficient wastewater treatment and agricultural runoff. This study highlights the importance of implementing adequate environmental management strategies to address these water quality challenges effectively. Given the pressing issue of water quality degradation in karstic environments, we emphasize on the need for increased monitoring frequency of both physicochemical and microbiological parameters to capture seasonal variations and to further understand the vulnerability of water resources in karstic environments. Future assessment of nutrient concentrations, pesticide levels, and blue-green algae populations will also be crucial for evaluating the trophic state at a watershed scale.

Novel Approach to Photocatalytic Removal of Linezolid by Advanced Nano-Biochar/Bismuth Oxychloride Hybrid.

Herein, we introduce an innovative nanohybrid material for advanced wastewater treatment, composed of Corchorus olitorius-derived biochar and bismuth oxychloride (Biochar/Bi12O17Cl2), demonstrated in a solar photoreactor. This work focuses on the efficient degradation of linezolid (LIN), a persistent pharmaceutical pollutant, utilizing the unique (photo)catalytic capabilities of the nanohybrid. Compared with its individual components, the biochar/Bi12O17Cl2 hybrid exhibits a remarkable degradation efficiency of 82.6% for LIN, alongside significant chemical oxygen demand (COD) and total organic carbon (TOC) mineralization rates of 81.3 and 75.8%, respectively. These results were achieved within 3 h under solar irradiation, using an optimal composite dose of 125 mg/L at pH 4.3 ± 0.45, with an initial COD and LIN concentrations of 1605 and 160.8 mg/L and TOC of 594.3 mg/L. The nanohybrid's stability across five cycles of use demonstrates its potential for repeated applications, with degradation efficiencies of 82.6 and 77.9% in the first and fifth cycles, respectively. This indicates the biochar/Bi12O17Cl2 composite's suitability as a sustainable and cost-effective solution for the remediation of heavily contaminated waters. Further, the degradation pathway proposed the degradation of all of the generated intermediates to a single-ring compound. Contributing to the development of next-generation materials for environmental remediation, this research underscores the critical role of nanotechnology in enhancing water quality and ecosystem sustainability and addressing the global imperative for clean water access and environmental preservation.

Enhancing Water Quality in Biu, Borno State, Nigeria: Impact of Storage Duration on Sachet Water

Enhancing Water Quality in Biu, Borno State, Nigeria: Impact of Storage Duration on Sachet Water

Spatial distribution of physicochemical parameters and drinking and irrigation water quality indices in the Jhelum River, Pakistan.

Sustainable management of river systems is a serious concern, requiring vigilant monitoring of water contamination levels that could potentially threaten the ecological community. This study focused on the evaluation of water quality in the Jhelum River (JR), Azad Jammu and Kashmir, and northern Punjab, Pakistan. To achieve this, 60 water samples were collected from various points within the JR Basin (JRB) and subjected to a comprehensive analysis of their physicochemical parameters. The study findings indicated that the concentrations of physicochemical parameters in the JRB water remained within safety thresholds for both drinking and irrigation water, as established by the World Health Organization and Pakistan Environmental Protection Agency. These physicochemical parameters refer to various chemical and physical characteristics of the water that can have implications for both human health (drinking water) and agricultural practices (irrigation water). The spatial variations throughout the river course distinguished between the upstream, midstream, and downstream sections. Specifically, the downstream section exhibited significantly higher values for physicochemical parameters and a broader range, highlighting a substantial decline in its quality. Significant disparities in mean values and ranges were evident, particularly in the case of nitrates and total dissolved solids, when the downstream section was compared with its upstream and midstream counterparts. These variations indicated a deteriorating downstream water quality profile, which is likely attributable to a combination of geological and anthropogenic influences. Despite the observed deterioration in the downstream water quality, this study underscores that the JRB within the upper Indus Basin remains safe and suitable for domestic and agricultural purposes. The JRB was evaluated for various irrigation water quality indices. The principal component analysis conducted in this study revealed distinct covariance patterns among water quality variables, with the first five components explaining approximately 79% of the total variance. Recommending the continued utilization of the JRB for irrigation, we advocate for the preservation and enhancement of water quality in the downstream regions.

Eco-Restorative Solutions: Unveiling Bioremediation's Impact on Water Quality Enhancement

As a result of the world's growing industrialization and urbanization, developing nations have the densest populations worldwide. Due to numerous anthropogenic activities, this population growth has resulted in the generation of huge quantities of waste and reclaimed water. The main challenge is creating approaches so that they support wastewater treatment. Therefore, bioremediation is regarded as one of the most environmentally friendly, economical, safer and cleanest technologies for cleaning up sites contaminated with a variety of contaminants, including heavy metals, inorganic pollutants, organic pollutants, oil spill, dye and pesticides. The use of microorganisms found in nature, such as bacteria, fungus, and microalgae has emerged as an ecofriendly method. Using their unique molecular biodegradation pathways, novel bioremediation organisms offer innovative and useful insights. Enzymes, metabolites, and other bioactive chemicals produced by bacteria involved in water treatment can be identified primarily through the use of metagenomics techniques. This review speeds up research on the role of bioremediation in water purification while also providing a brief discussion of the environmental effects of water pollution.

Effects of two fillers and process conditions on the water treatment efficiency of a continuous packed bed biofilm reactor.

This study evaluated the treatment efficiency of two selected fillers and their combination for improving the water quality of aquaculture wastewater using a packed bed biofilm reactor (PBBR) under various process conditions. The fillers used were nanosheet (NS), activated carbon (AC), and a combination of both. The results indicated that the use of combined fillers and the hydraulic retention time (HRT) of 4 h significantly enhanced water quality in the PBBR. The removal rates of chemical oxygen demand, NO2-─N, total suspended solids（TSS）, and chlorophyll a were 63.55%, 74.25%, 62.75%, and 92.85%, respectively. The microbiota analysis revealed that the presence of NS increased the abundance of microbial phyla associated with nitrogen removal, such as Nitrospirae and Proteobacteria. The difference between the M1 and M2 communities was minimal. Additionally, the microbiota in different PBBR samples displayed similar preferences for carbon sources, and carbohydrates and amino acids were the most commonly utilized carbon sources by microbiota. These results indicated that the combination of NS and AC fillers in a PBBR effectively enhanced the treatment efficiency of aquaculture wastewater when operated at an HRT of 4 h. The findings provide valuable insights into optimizing the design of aquaculture wastewater treatment systems.

Impact of Biosorption Process on Industrial Waste Water Treatment in Panipat District, Haryana

Abstract: In this research paper, I have thoroughy described about the topic “Impact of Biosorption Process on Industrial Waste Water Treatment in Panipat District, Haryana.” The industrial wastewater pollution plaguing Panipat District, Haryana, poses a complex environmental challenge due to the diverse range of industrial activities in the region, including textiles, petrochemicals, and leather processing. This pollution, characterized by the discharge of heavy metals, dyes, organic compounds, and other contaminants into water bodies, threatens both aquatic ecosystems and public health. Conventional physical and chemical treatments have proven inadequate or environmentally harmful, necessitating the exploration of ecofriendly alternatives. Biosorption, a biotechnological method employing live or dead biomass to remove pollutants from wastewater, emerges as a promising solution owing to its cost-effectiveness, efficiency, and low environmental impact. This study explores the efficacy of biosorption techniques in mitigating industrial wastewater pollution in Panipat District, evaluating various biosorbents' performance and efficiency in pollutant removal. Results indicate remarkable reductions in pollutant concentrations, with activated carbon achieving a removal efficiency of 96% for chromium, agricultural residues demonstrating a removal efficiency of 95% for dyes, and microbial biomass exhibiting an 87.5% removal efficiency for organic compounds. Furthermore, biosorption processes contribute to cost savings, regulatory compliance, water quality enhancement, resource recovery, positive public perception, and long-term sustainability, positioning them as integral components of environmentally responsible industrial practices in Panipat. This research bridges scientific inquiry with practical application, advocating for the widespread adoption of biosorption technologies to address industrial wastewater challenges, protect ecosystems, and safeguard communities in Panipat District and beyond.

Evaluation of the Water Quality of Nakdong River Using the Real-time Water Quality Index

Recently, the influx of pollutants into rivers has increased owing to the impacts of climate and environmental change, consequently accelerating the pollution of river ecosystems and aquatic habitats. Consequently, river water quality must be precisely assessed to facilitate effective management strategies by discerning different aspects of water quality deterioration and enhancement and by identifying and regulating river contaminants. Understanding water quality at a cursory glance is highly challenging, particularly for individuals lacking expertise in water pollution assessment. Hence, the present investigation utilized a domestically developed real-time water quality index (RT-WQI) to scrutinize the water quality attributes at 12 specific locations within the total pollution quantity monitoring network situated in the main channel of the Nakdong River system to render the water quality of the river easily comprehensible even to non-specialists. Furthermore, an attempt was made to detect patterns by applying the Mann–Kendall test and locally weighted scatter plot smoothing (LOWESS) using the index values for water quality assessment. To achieve this aim, extensive water quality data (averaged on a monthly basis) spanning 2004–2022 were obtained from the Water Environment Information System of the Ministry of Environment (https://water.nier.go.kr). The gathered date were then subjected to computation of descriptive statistics for individual water quality parameters to delineate the distinctive features of water quality. This study anticipates that the evaluation of water quality across diverse river systems in the future will facilitate the identification of highly polluted rivers and confirm their trends, thereby providing fundamental data for the management of river basins and the formulation of water quality policies.

Defending against environmental threats: Unveiling household adaptation strategies and population heterogeneity

Humanity faces a variety of risks from pollution and environmental degradation. Societal advancement has equipped the public with numerous self-protection measures to mitigate these threats. However, the ways in which individuals deploy and balance self-defence mechanisms within this complex risk landscape and the resulting consequences remain largely unexplored. Drawing on a detailed survey of households’ self-defence practices, this study rigorously analyses the heterogeneity and driving factors behind household-level self-defence strategies. Through exploratory latent class modelling, we identified four distinct defence patterns: inaction, water-sensitive, air-sensitive, and multifaceted. These patterns reveal varied defence capabilities among the population. By integrating frameworks from economics and social psychology, significant disparities were found in the driving factors behind these patterns. Practices aimed at combating air pollution are primarily driven by the actual severity of pollution and perceived coping capabilities, whereas measures to enhance water quality are influenced more by perceived threats. This disparity arises from variations in information availability and health awareness. The study also highlights a misalignment between the distribution of defence capabilities and the levels of pollution. Given that income restricts self-defence options, this mismatch indicates that economically disadvantaged groups are disproportionately affected by severe health inequalities.

DeepNNet 15 for the prediction of biological waste to energy conversion and nutrient level detection in treated sewage water

Efforts toward sustainable environmental development encompass global initiatives to enhance water quality, sanitation, and wastewater management. This study addresses the energy-intensive nature of sewage water treatment, which is critical for curbing water pollution. We propose a 15-layer Deep Neural Network (DeepNNet-15) to analyse energy conversion and nutrient levels. Constructed with dense layers of up to 10 neurons each, featuring ReLU activation, DeepNNet-15 utilises a benchmark sewage water dataset for training. With 11 input and five output neurons, including energy and nutrient parameters, DeepNNet-15 predicts parameters with less than 3 % error. Its deep learning performance demonstrates over 90 % accuracy, precision, and above 97 % specificity. The practical significance of this research lies in the demonstrated efficacy of DeepNNet-15 in forecasting energy conversion efficiency and nutrient levels in treated sewage water. By harnessing advanced neural network architecture and machine learning techniques, this study offers a tangible contribution to sustainable environmental practices. It equips stakeholders with a robust tool to enhance sewage water treatment efficiency and effectiveness. It aligns with global sustainable development goals and promotes pollution mitigation, resource optimisation, and a cleaner, healthier environment.

Effect of activated carbon compaction on water filtration efficiency

Water contamination in rural Malaysian areas, mainly caused by logging activities leading to soil erosion and river pollution, presents a significant threat to water supplies. In response, a specialized activated carbon water filtering device was developed to target the absorption of organic molecules. The impact of compaction of activated carbon on water filtering efficiency was evaluated. Testing both compacted and uncompacted activated carbon filters with contaminated river water, the study utilized the Malaysia Department of Environment’s (DOE) water quality index (WQI) to assess filter effectiveness. The results revealed that water filtered through compacted activated carbon was clearer and less yellowish compared to the uncompacted counterpart. Moreover, the compacted filter showed higher dissolved oxygen levels, lower ammoniacal nitrogen levels, and a lower pH, resulting in a significantly higher WQI score of 80.4 compared to 78.8 for the uncompacted filter. Further analysis via an adsorption isotherm test demonstrated the superior ability of compacted activated carbon to absorb acetic acid, as evidenced by higher lines in the Freundlich isotherm model graphs. These findings emphasize the efficacy of compacted activated carbon in water filtration, advocating for its integration into filter construction to enhance water quality in rural regions.

Addressing Water Contamination and Associated Health Issues through Community-Based Interventions: A Case Study in Khon Kaen Province.

A recent study conducted in Khon Kaen Province, Thailand, evaluated the effectiveness of a technology-assisted intervention aimed at improving water quality and addressing related health issues in communities around key water bodies. The intervention targeted health concerns associated with water contamination, including chronic kidney diseases, skin conditions, hypertension, and neurological symptoms. The study included water quality assessments and health evaluations of 586 residents and implemented a Learning Innovation Platform (LIP) across 13 communities. Results showed significant improvements in the community, including a decrease in hypertension and skin-related health issues, as well as enhanced community awareness and proficiency in implementing simple water quality assessments and treatment. The study demonstrated the value of a comprehensive, technology-driven community approach, effectively enhancing water quality and health outcomes, and promoting greater community awareness and self-sufficiency in managing environmental health risks.

Identification and assessment of Critical parameters affecting drinking water quality: A case study of water treatment plants of India

Water-borne diseases are common in India and are mostly brought on by shortages and poor quality of potable water. Watercourses receive many effluents, generally residential sewage, due to inadequate sanitation and wastewater treatment. Hence, drinking water treatment plants (DWTPs) face difficulties in meeting the drinking water standards. The current study evaluated the water quality before and after the conventional drinking water treatment process. The water quality was analyzed every month from three major DWTPs in Guwahati, Assam, India for one year. The study showed significant variation in river water turbidity and pathogen levels. During monsoon, river water turbidity reached up to 470 ± 20 NTU, and an increase in pathogen concentration was observed during the dry seasons at low flow conditions. Many times, drinking water turbidity and MPN values exceeded the BIS guideline value in drinking water. The total organic carbon (TOC), one major precursor of disinfection by-products observed in treated drinking water, was found to be in a higher range in water before and after treatment. After treatment, the TOC of (3.25 ± 0.5 mg/L) was found. For better understanding, the water quality was evaluated using the Modified Entropy-weight Water Quality Index (MEWQI) which showed very poor status in the raw water collected from the river Brahmaputra. While the plant's water quality after treatment varied in the category of fair to very good in certain months of the year, but never excellent quality was achieved in any of the selected plants. The results of the sensitivity analysis suggest that turbidity and MPN exhibit the greatest contribution to the WQI of raw water followed by TOC in drinking water. By providing accurate water quality data, this study benefits researchers, policymakers, and water scientists. It also facilitates the adoption of clean production methods to mitigate pollution and enhance water quality.

Drinking water safety improvement and future challenge of lakes and reservoirs

To meet the Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) target 6.1, China has undertaken significant initiatives to address the uneven distribution of water resources and to enhance water quality. Since 2000, China has invested heavily in the water infrastructure of numerous reservoirs, with a total storage capacity increase of 4.704 × 1011 m3 (an increase of 90.8%). These reservoirs have significantly enhanced the available freshwater resources for drinking water. Concurrently, efforts to improve water quality in lakes and reservoirs, facilitated by nationwide water quality monitoring, have been successful. As a result, an increasing lakes and reservoirs are designated as centralized drinking water sources (CDWSs) in China. Among the 3,441 CDWSs across all provinces, 40.8% are sourced from lakes and reservoirs, 32.6% from rivers, and 26.6% from groundwater in 2023. Notably, from 2016 to 2023, the percentage of lakes and reservoirs categorized as CDWSs has increased consistently across all 29 provinces. This progress has enabled 561.4 million urban residents to access improved drinking water sources in 2022, compared to 303.4 million in 2004. Our findings underscore the pivotal role of water infrastructure construction and water quality improvement jointly promoting lakes and reservoirs as vital drinking water sources. Nevertheless, the nationwide occurrence of algal blooms has surged by 113.7% from the 2000s to the 2010s , which is a considerable challenge to drinking water safety. Fortunately, algal blooms have been markedly alleviated in past four years. However, it is still crucial to acknowledge that lakes and reservoirs face the challenges of algal blooms, and associated toxic microcystin and odor compounds.

Metal bioaccumulation in marine invertebrates and risk assessment in sediments from South African coastal harbours and natural rocky shores

Industrial and urban activities are major contributors to metal contamination in coastal systems, often impacting the physiology, distribution and diversity of marine invertebrates. This study assessed metal contaminations in sediments, seawater, algae and invertebrates across four armoured systems (harbours) and two natural sites along the south coast of South Africa. Bioaccumulation factors such as Biosediment (BSAF), Biowater (BWAF), Bioaccumulation (BAF) and bioremediation of metals by invertebrate bioindicators were also determined. Spatial variation in metal concentrations were observed, however, bioaccumulation of metals was site and species-specific. Invertebrates bioaccumulated higher metal concentrations in armoured than natural sites, with filter feeders exhibiting higher concentrations than grazers. Among filter feeders, Octomeris angulosa and Crassostrea gigas bioaccumulated elevated aluminium (Al), arsenic (As), chromium (Cr), zinc (Zn) and copper (Cu), while, Perna perna accumulated elevated nickel (Ni), cadmium (Cd) and lead (Pb). Among grazers, Siphonaria serrata and Scutellastra longicosta bioaccumulated elevated Al, Cr, Cd, cobalt (Co), Cu, Ni and Zn. Bioaccumulation factors indicated that (As, Ni, Zn) were bioaccumulated by algae, and invertebrates from sediment (BSAF>1) and from seawater (BWAF>1). Additionally, invertebrates bioaccumulated metals from their prey item, algae as indicated by (BAF>1). Arsenic Cd and Pb in invertebrates were above the maximum limit set for human consumption by various regulatory bodies. Our findings underscore the significant role of coastal invertebrates in bioaccumulating and bioremediating metals, suggesting a natural mechanism for water quality enhancement, especially in urbanised coastal areas.

Smart Water Pollution Management: IoT for Automatic Detection and Prevention

Water quality monitoring is vital for public health and environmental sustainability, but traditional methods face challenges such as high costs, lack of portability, and limited real-time data access. This paper presents a solution using Arduino-based sensors integrated with IoT technology to enhance water quality monitoring. The system employs various sensors to measure parameters like Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), turbidity, water transparency, methane gas, and alcohol gas. Data from these sensors is transmitted to a NodeMCU microcontroller and uploaded to the Blynk cloud platform, allowing real-time monitoring and remote access via customizable dashboards. The proposed system is cost-effective, portable, and provides immediate data access, addressing the limitations of traditional methods. It enables timely detection of water quality issues, facilitating prompt responses to health and environmental threats. This innovative approach significantly advances water quality monitoring by leveraging IoT technologies to improve environmental management practices

Crop grey water footprints in China: The impact of pesticides on water pollution

Agricultural water pollution is a significant challenge in China, a rapidly growing economy with a large agricultural sector. The grey water footprint (WF) is a tool for evaluating freshwater pollution. It expresses pollution in volumetric units identifying the pollutant that theoretically needs most water to be diluted to accepted water quality standards. Previous agricultural grey WF studies focused on nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P), some studies included pesticides. This study assesses grey WFs based on N, P and 1513 pesticide combinations for twelve main crops and two crop categories in 31 Chinese provinces. Grey WFs, including the pesticide component, are far larger than estimated before, dominating total agricultural WFs (green, blue, and grey). The total grey WF of Chinese agriculture (4,900 109 m3 year−1) is determined by pesticides, while grey WFs related to N and P are 450 and 1,500 109 m3 year−1, differences of a factor of eleven and three respectively. The provinces Heilongjiang, Inner Mongolia, Hebei, Henan, and Shandong are hotspots contributing 37 % to the total grey WF. A limited number of pesticides used for maize, vegetables, fruits and potato (Mancozeb a fungicide, Acetochlor a herbicide and Cypermethrin an insecticide) dominate total grey WFs, contributing 80 % to the total grey WF. Eliminating the most polluting pesticides per category and redistributing the remaining ones with a similar function but lower grey WFs reduces national water pollution from agriculture by 64 %. Only five crops, i.e. maize, potato, soybean, rice and wheat, and the two crop categories, vegetables and fruits, contribute 94 % to this reduction. Probably grey WFs could reduce even further with a second elimination and redistribution effort. This study is the first national grey WF assessment related to pesticides in agriculture. It offers valuable insights to farmers and policymakers to enhance water quality in China and beyond.

Low-Cost Grey Water Treatment System Design And Treatability Studies In Relation To Recycling And Reuse In Rural Area of Angul District of Odisha

As global water scarcity intensifies, there is a growing need for sustainable water management solutions, particularly in rural areas where access to clean water is often limited. This study focuses on the development of a low-cost greywater treatment system tailored for rural settings, emphasizing the recycling and reuse of greywater. The research encompasses the design, implementation, and treatability studies of the proposed system, aiming to provide an affordable and effective solution for improving water sustainability in resource-constrained communities. The designed greywater treatment system incorporates cost-effective technologies and locally available materials to ensure its feasibility in rural contexts. The treatability studies explore the system's efficiency in removing contaminants commonly found in greywater, evaluating its potential to meet water quality standards suitable for various non-potable applications. Emphasis is placed on the system's adaptability to local conditions, promoting community engagement and ownership for long-term sustainability. By addressing the unique challenges faced by rural areas, this research contributes to the broader goal of achieving water security through decentralized, affordable, and environmentally conscious greywater treatment solutions. The findings from this study can inform policymakers, engineers, and local communities on practical approaches to enhance water quality, reduce environmental impact, and promote water recycling and reuse in rural settings.