English Worldwide Research Articles

Efficiency in ELF Communication: From Pragmatic Motives to Lexico-grammatical Innovation

The considerable demographic shift in the use of English worldwide, with the effect that L2 speakers outnumber L1 speakers, particularly as typified in English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) communication, is now widely acknowledged in Applied Linguistics. To a certain extent the resulting impact this has in relation to key issues such as the ownership of English has also been recognised. Description of the linguistic consequences of this shift however is less established, and lingua franca corpora are still in their relatively early stages of development, though growing in momentum. This paper will contribute to the emerging body of work that does report on empirical studies in the field, drawing on two corpora of naturally occurring lingua franca interactions which have been gathered for PhD projects at King's College London. To date reported ELF research projects have tended to focus separately on one or other linguistic system, on phonology (e.g. Jenkins 2000; 2005), and to a lesser extent on pragmatics (e.g. House 1999), and on lexicogrammatical features (cf Seidlhofer 2004). The focus of this paper is to report on findings in both pragmatics and lexicogrammar, and in so doing to identify the interrelationship between the two systems and highlight ways in which they are mutually constitutive. The paper aims to show how pragmatic motives can lead to changes in the lexis and grammar, and in turn how lexicogrammatical innovations impact on pragmatic norms and strategies.

The Prerogative of ‘Corrective Recasts’ as a Sign of Hegemony in the Use of Language: Further Thoughts on Eric Hauser's (2005) ‘Coding “Corrective Recasts”: The Maintenance of Meaning and More Fundamental Problems’

The objective of this response article is to think through some of what I see as the far-reaching implications of a recent paper by Eric Hauser (2005) entitled ‘Coding ‘‘corrective recasts’’: the maintenance of meaning and more fundamental problems’. Hauser makes a compelling, empirically-backed case for his contention that, contrary to widespread belief, so-called ‘corrective recasts’ in SLA ought not to be seen as preserving meaning. Upon closer inspection, Hauser’s point can be read as a powerful indictment of the notoriously unequal power distribution in the use of the English language world-wide. Corrective recasts are used not only in the context of EFL teaching but also in the sphere of academic publishing where NS editorial assistants pay special attention to correctively recasting submissions by NNS contributors. Although the justification offered is typically that of ‘polishing up’ the text language-wise, such corrective recasts sometimes tamper with the intended meanings of the text’s author(s), irretrievably distorting the outcome. Needless to say, this is by no means unique to the English language, but given the fact that English is by far the world’s number one language of academic publishing, and that an important part of what is expected of editorial assistants and copy editors is a very good command of the language of publication, the NS/NNS divide is most prone to coincide with institutionally sanctioned unequal power relations.

Twenty years on

In 1986, I was interviewed by a long-standing colleague and friend, Arnold Pitt, for the British journal The Esperanto Teacher. As editor of that periodical he referred to the journal I had recently begun to edit, English Today, as ‘the other ET’. His interview questions began with English worldwide, and ended with his key concern, Esperanto as a (or the) world’s auxiliary language. I have always had a strong fellow feeling for ‘Esperantism’. Many artificial languages have been ‘manufactured’ for commendable philanthropic reasons, but only Esperanto has had any kind of impact on the world, and, to my mind, it is admirable in its cosmopolitanism. That said, however, my views on the pre-eminence for good and/or ill of English and, sadly, the limited prospects of Esperanto have not changed in the twenty years since that interview. The interview is therefore reprinted here with some further reflections [in square brackets]. Comments are welcomed.

Current Perspectives on Teaching the Four Skills

This article presents an overview of recent developments in second language (L2) teaching and highlights the trends that began in the 1990s and the 2000s and are likely to continue to affect instruction in L2 skills at least in the immediate future. Also highlighted are recent developments in instruction as they pertain specifically to the teaching of L2 speaking, listening, reading, and writing. In the past 15 years or so, several crucial factors have combined to affect current perspectives on the teaching of English worldwide: (a) the decline of methods, (b) a growing emphasis on both bottom-up and top-down skills, (c) the creation of new knowledge about English, and (d) integrated and contextualized teaching of multiple language skills. In part because of its comparatively short history as a discipline, TESOL has been and continues to be a dynamic field, one in which new venues and perspectives are still unfolding. The growth of new knowledge about the how and the what of L2 teaching and learning is certain to continue and will probably remain the hallmark of TESOL's disciplinary maturation.

Decolonizing ESOL: Negotiating Linguistic Power in U.S. Public School Classrooms

The year-long study that was the context for this article explored the complicated relationship among the shaping of ESOL as a school construct, the historical legacy of colonialism, and the contemporary influence of globalizing forces on the teaching of English worldwide and the lives of multilingual students enrolled in ESOL. In the context of a year-long critical feminist ethnography of four first-year teachers, this data-driven exploration examines each of three interconnected colonialist manifestations within the schools of the study: (1) an embracing of the supremacy of English over other languages, related to the dominance within school walls of a monolingual model of identity; (2) an investment in keeping Self and Other dichotomous, reflected in a construction of the school category of ESOL as Other and deficit; and (3) the promotion of a White, NES, American norm and the consequent marginalization of ethnic minority, NNES, and immigrant status.

Globalization and the future of Creole languages

The plantation system that gave rise to many existing creoles can be said to be the prototype upon which the current wave of corporate globalization has been modeled (Linebaugh 1992). The daily wages received by the majority of workers worldwide at the beginning of the 21st century are not even equal to half the value of the daily food rations received by plantation slaves at the beginning of the 19th in the Greater Caribbean or at the beginning of the 20th in the South Pacific (World Bank 2000; Farnsworth 1999 and Queensland 1892). Structural adjustment policies are restricting the spread of English to the few who reap some reward from corporate globalization. In contrast, the overwhelming majority are by necessity learning and reshaping existing regional koines, pidgins, and creoles, through processes of adaptation, creativity and resistance (Rickford 1983). Far from being a threat to creoles, corporate globalization is bringing about an increase in the number of speakers of these languages, which dwarfs the much proclaimed growth of English worldwide.

China English, at home and in the world

First describing the rapid growth of English as a lingua franca in Europe and East Asia, and having drawn attention to similarities and differences in the evolution of the varieties of English worldwide, the author focuses on China where, as in so many other domains, growth and change are currently very rapid. She reports in particular on an investigation into 586 Chinese English teachers' attitudes to both the standard varieties of the language around the world and a new variety, China English. A majority of the teachers surveyed considers that China English will eventually become a standard variety of the language in its own right, and at least stand alongside the current national favourite, American English. In addition, the teachers' views on both the cultural content of teaching materials and the use of native speakers of English in Chinese institutions of education reflect both China's openness to the world and a strong adherence to its own culture. The signs are, she argues, that China English is on its way to becoming another world variety, which will happen when it has been adequately described, codified and officially recognized.

Putting back the horse before the cart

A common assumption in studies of English world-wide is that speakers of an L2 frequently rely on the orthographic form of words in settling upon their pronunciation. I call this the “spelling form hypothesis”. This paper critically examines the assumptions behind this hypothesis and shows them to be implausible, and in fact fallacious for advanced interlanguages and fluent sub-varieties of a second language. Using data from Black South African English involving the equivalents of schwa in “standard” varieties (e.g. RP, General American and “cultivated” South African English), I argue that phonetic and orthographic forms often do not coincide. Furthermore, even where they coincide, other phonological factors than the use of spelling are usually at play.

Where WE stands: approaches, issues, and debate in world Englishes

Abstract: This paper sets out to review current approaches to world Englishes from a range of perspectives, from English studies to sociolinguistics, applied linguistics, lexicography, ‘popularizers’ and critical linguistics. It then proceeds to consider current debates on English worldwide and world Englishes, noting the recent criticisms of the world Englishes approach from a rhetoric of a critical linguistics ironically at odds with the realities of many educational settings.

The psychic rewards of teaching

A interview conducted by William P. Ancker. The interview took place at the Intercultural Center at Georgetown University in Washington DC, 9 October 2003, and appeared in the April 2004 issue of the journal English Teaching Forum (edited by Max Koller and published by the U.S. Department of State, for teachers of English world-wide). We reproduce it here with thanks.

Chinese Englishes: a sociolinguistic history

List of maps List of illustrations List of tables Preface Acknowledgements 1. New Englishes and World Englishes: pluricentric approaches to English worldwide 2. The sociolinguistics of English in late colonial Hong Kong, 1980-1997 3. The archaeology of 'Chinese Englishes', 1637-1949 4. The emergence of Hong Kong English as a 'new English' 5. Hong Kong, China and Chinese Englishes Appendices References Index.

The Forum

A discussion of globalization is presented that focuses on the pros and cons of English spread. The postcolonial theoretical basis for promoting the status of second-language varieties of English, and how this impacts on the foreign-language speaker of English in the European Union, is investigated. Three primary factors, linguistic Anglo-Americanization, the decline of standard British English as an educational norm, and the monoculturalization that accompanies English language learning, are addressed. While the spread of English is beneficial in some respects, Anglo-Americanization is seen as threatening to the social and cultural integrity of non-native speakers of English. The construction of identity within foreign-language learning, of importance to learners of English worldwide, is discussed. It is held that a theoretically neutral program for English, which is growing out of the Euro-English and English as an international language paradigms, is the best possible platform for the teaching and learning of English.

Squaring the circles: issues in modeling English worldwide

The model originally promoted by Braj Kachru and representing English worldwide as Inner, Outer, and Expanding circles has helped valorize denigrated varieties by drawing attention to commonalities across old and new varieties and by altering perceptions of their communicative potential and relative prestige. However, the model suffers from being based in a political/historical view of English worldwide and thus fails to capture transplantations of the language in locations not formally recorded by colonial history. Because it promotes specific varieties, the model also ignores variation within locales, especially where the gap between those who know English and those who do not is vast. Overall, the model encourages broad‐brush descriptions of manifestations of English across all three circles that do not stand up to sociolinguistic analysis. In response, it is suggested that the model can continue to serve as a shorthand for English worldwide but that it must adapt by (1) moving away from a focus on nation‐states in favor of a sociolinguistic focus on English‐speaking communities wherever they are found and (2) recognizing that fundamental differences across contexts for English worldwide cannot be glossed over in support of specific varieties if we are to arrive at descriptively adequate sociolinguistics and socially relevant language policies.

Between English and Esperanto: what does it take to be a world language?

English has emerged as a world language after the Second World War. This role of English as a de facto international lingua franca has been criticized as ‘linguistic imperialism’ or ‘linguicism’, threatening the vitality and development of many local languages in former Anglo-American colonies, especially in Africa and Asia. To counter the hegemony of the phenomenal spread of English worldwide, some scholars advocate and promote the use of Esperanto, an artificial language, as an international auxiliary language. Created by Lazaro Ludoviko Zamenhof in 1887, Esperanto is largely based on the lexicons of several dominant European languages, an alphabetical language characterized by a learner-friendly phonology and relatively simple syntax and morphology. To adherents of Esperanto, its sociolinguistic appeal lies mainly in the fact that, unlike English, it is no one’s first language, and so no user of Esperanto would feel disadvantaged when communicating with other fellow Esperantists. After over 110 years of continual development, the Esperanto movement has attracted thousands of followers worldwide, but toward the goal of replacing English as a world language, Esperanto faces many obstacles. This paper discusses two main problems confronted by Esperanto as a serious contender of English for that role: relatively limited communicative functions, and the ‘medium-as-message’ paradox. These problems explain why individual language learners find Esperanto unattractive compared to other natural languages of wider communication, and why governments tend to lack the incentive to add Esperanto to the local school curriculum. The claim that the spread of English is responsible for the world’s social evils is overstated. Globalization is more satisfactorily accounted for by the global triumph of the ‘Utilitarian Discourse System.’

Metaphors the English language lives by

A discussion of the centrality of imagery in the promotion and use of English worldwide. Metaphor is traditionally considered a “figure of speech”, describing one thing by stating another with which it can be compared, as discussed by rhetoricians and grammarians, from Aristotle in his Poetics and Rhetoric to I. A. Richards in The Philosophy of Rhetoric (1936) and Kenneth Burke in A Grammar of Motives (1945), a growing number of recent linguists have been trying to establish metaphor at a cognitive, conceptual level (such as Lakoff and Johnson, 1980; Gibbs, 1994).

English in a historical perspective – a neglected inheritance?

PAUL RASTALL assesses current issues and possibilities in studying the history of English“…often…in words contemplated singly, there are boundless stores of moral and historic truth, and no less of passion and imagination are laid up – that from these lessons of infinite worth may be derived…”(Richard C. Trench, 1851, 1)When we think of “English today”, a range of issues naturally springs to mind. Principally, they are “synchronic” issues. They can be matters “internal” to linguistic systems, or viewpoints “external” to English considered as a communication system. Externally, we might consider, for example, the diversity of geographical, generational or sociolinguistic varieties, teaching and learning conditions and problems, the political and economic issues arising from the enormous spread of English worldwide. Internally, there are the many questions of phonology, grammar, lexicon, usage and textual practices, which are more directly “linguistic” in the narrow sense. A little less obviously, we can consider issues of the future of English both from the “external” point of view, looking at – for example – the selection of varieties for teaching or international communication purposes, and from the “internal” viewpoint, the “synchronic dynamics” of English, looking at the ways in which English is currently changing or tending to change. All of those matters and others are well covered in English Today.

Endogeny versus contact revisited: aspectual busy in South African English

‘I'm busy going crazy’- [harassed graduate student of Linguistics, University of Cape Town] In an important paper Lass and Wright [Lass, R., Wright, S., 1986. Endogeny versus contact: Afrikaans influence in South African English. English World Wide 7 (2), 201–223] argued that busy in South African English was, contrary to prevailing scholarly intuitions, not really attributable to Afrikaans influence, except for a lifting of the semantic restriction that the verb being modified refer to work activities. The structure itself, they argued, was an endogenous development, i.e. reliant on already existing options within internal English structure, rather than a feature of language contact. This article aims to test the authors' conclusions in the light of further data since 1986, and the rise of corpus linguistics. It concludes that Lass and Wright were essentially correct in their views, with two important (related) modifications. The first is whether any appeal to Afrikaans pragmatics is necessary; the second is how South African the construction is in the first place.

Linguistic imperialism?

There is growing concern about the spread and influence of English worldwide. In Cyprus, the influence of English on the Greek Cypriot dialect has attracted much interest in recent years, becoming the subject of frequent media attention and, at times, creating acrimonious public discussion. While some people have reacted mildly to this phenomenon, others express strong views, seeing the ‘influx’ of foreign words as a ‘linguistic invasion’ that ‘contaminates’ their language, and referring to the ‘suppression’ of the Greek language by English. Such ‘protectors’ of language warn of a colonialist ‘dominance’ of English in the lives of Cypriots. This paper (a) examines concerns and fears that were expressed recently about the influx of English loanwords in Cypriot Greek and in general the influence of English in Cyprus and (b) reviews papers presented at a conference held in 1992 that dealt with the dominance of English and the ‘suppression’ of Cypriot Greek.

Closing A Conceptual Gap: The Case For A Description Of English As A Lingua Franca

Despite momentous developments in the sociopolitics of the teaching of English worldwide, targets have generally remained tied to native‐speaker norms. This paper argues that although this orientation is often recognized as inappropriate and counter‐productive, it persists because discussions about ‘global English’ on the meta‐level have not been accompanied by a necessary reorientation in linguistic research: very little empirical work has so far been done on the most extensive contemporary use of English worldwide, namely English as a lingua franca, largely among ‘non‐native’ speakers. The paper seeks to demonstrate that this lack of a descriptive reality precludes us from conceiving of speakers of lingua franca English as language users in their own right and thus makes it dif?cult to counteract the reproduction of native English dominance. To remedy this situation, a research agenda is proposed which accords lingua franca English a central place in description alongside English as a native language, and a new corpus project is described which constitutes a ?rst step in this process. The paper concludes with a consideration of the potentially very signi?cant impact that the availability of an alternative model for the teaching of English as a lingua franca would have for pedagogy and teacher education.

Review. Teaching English Worldwide: A New Practical Guide to Teaching English. P Lindsay

Review. Teaching English Worldwide: A New Practical Guide to Teaching English. P Lindsay