English Sparrow Research Articles

Presence of Haemoproteus sp. in House Sparrows in England

ALTHOUGH there have been many records of Haemoproteus in the English sparrow (Passer domesticus) from America and Europe1–3 there appears to be no published record of the parasite occurring in Britain.

Blood Parasites of Birds at Wateree, South Carolina

Of 603 birds collected at Wateree, South Carolina, 22.7% were infected with one or more blood parasites. The most prevalent infection was with Haemoproteus sp. followed by Plasmodium sp., microfilaria, Leucocytozoon sp., and Trypanosoma sp. The blood parasites of birds in South Carolina have been studied by Hart (1949) and by Hunninen and Young (1950). Hart examined a total of 323 English sparrows and 64 various other birds from 1946 to 1947. Hunninen and Young examined 737 birds collected on the grounds of the State Hospital at Columbia, South Carolina from 1947 to 1949. In the present investigation, birds were collected as part of a program to investigate the incidence of Plasmodium and virus infections in birds and mosquitoes in a selected area of South Carolina. Reported here are the results of this study in regard to prevalence of blood parasites in birds collected during a period of approximately 11 months. MATERIALS AND METHODS The study area selected was in the southeastern corner of Richland County, South Carolina. The area was approximately 6 miles long, running along U. S. Highway 601 from the Southern Railroad crossing in Wateree, South Carolina to the Wateree River. Collections were made on both sides of the road in an area approximately 2 miles wide. The area consisted of extensive pine plantings with intermixed areas of freshwater swamp. At the Wateree end of the area was located a farm on which were raised chickens, cattle, and horses. Birds were collected in Japanese nylon mist nets or were shot, the latter proving to be the most effective method in the very dense areas and for several species of birds such as woodpeckers. Blood smears were made from the blood samples collected by cardiac puncture, the latter being used for purposes other than those discussed in this paper. Two blood slides were made from each bird. The slides were air dried, fixed with methyl alcohol, and stained with Giemsa. The slides were studied under low power (100 X) for the detecReceived for publication 20 January 1966. * Address: Assistant Chief, Laboratory of Parasite Chemotherapy, NIAID, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland. t Address: State Entomologist, South Carolina Department of Health, Columbia, South Carolina. tion of the microfilariae and under oil immersion (970 X) for the detection of the other parasites. A minimum of 100 fields were examined before a smear was considered negative. The presence of Plasmodium sp., Leucocytozoon sp., Haemoproteuis sp., Trypanosoma sp., and microfilaria was recorded. The collection periods were from 5 June 1962 to 14 November 1962, and from 12 March 1963 to 16 April 1963.

The Life Cycle of the Species: An Extension of Current Concepts

This paper proposes that not only do species arise and subsequently become extinct but may behave in fundamentally similar fashions between their times of origin and extinction. Four major steps in the species' life cycle are recognized, based on the relative success of the organism as reflected in such traits as relative abundance, extent of subspeciation, and characteristics of geographic distribution. The first stage, or neospecies, is characterized by increasing abundance and expanding range; representatives are found in many introduced forms, including the English sparrow and European starling. The second stage, or mesospecies, has stable range boundaries, a relatively great abundance, and extensive subspeciation, as illustrated by the song sparrow, gray wolf, house rat, and many others. In the third stage, or euspecies, the level of abundance is generally high and the range boundaries stable, but subspeciation is scant or absent. The final stage, or telospecies, is marked by reduction in range, absence of subspeciation, and a low level of abundance and is exemplified by the whooping crane and other forms nearing extinction. That species can, and do, undergo extinction is demonstrated beyond all doubt by the fossil record, and that they also arise by natural processes is, since Darwin's time, a concept almost universally accepted by biologists. In the current philosophy of biology a modification of the Darwinian hypothesis is proposed in considering natural selection, in combination with mutation pressure, gene flow, and other factors, to give rise only to new subspecies, not to species as in the original evolution theory. To convert these subspecies into species, a need is visualized for an interruption of the gene flow between the major populations by one means or another to induce reproductive isolation (Dobzhansky, 1955; Dodson, 1960; Ehrlich and Holm, 1963). Only through the existence of some sort of barrier is it conceivable, in light of genetical knowledge, how differences which arise by mutation can become accumulated in a former subspecies to a degree sufficient to warrant its recognition as a full species. The purpose of the present paper is to extend the current views by suggesting that species not only arise and eventually become extinct but, in general, pass through a certain sequence of events between their origin and ultimate disappearance. In brief, it is proposed that species as an entity exhibit a life cycle not unlike that of many types of organisms.

Blood and tissue protozoa of the English sparrow (Passer domesticus domesticus) in Galveston, Texas.

SYNOPSIS. The 42% incidence of Plasmodium in blood films of English sparrows reported here is the highest on record for surveys of blood parasites of birds in the United States. The only Plasmodium species identified in the sparrows was P. relictum. Adult birds were almost universally infected and tended to experience the highest degree of parasitemia in the spring months, while young birds had a higher blood positivity in the summer months. The lowest incidence of Plasmodium positive blood films occurred in fall and winter in the Galveston area. Overwintering birds had a decrease in parasitemia corresponding to reported minimal gonadal activity in sparrows.The 20% incidence of Lankesterella (avian Toxoplasma) in the blood of these sparrows was also higher than has been reported in other blood film surveys in this country. Incidence of this parasite in blood films was highest in the summer months, corresponding with highest average temperature for the year. Lankesterella could be found in 95% of sparrows whose tissues were examined after autopsy.Ducks and pigeons in the immediate vicinity of the survey sparrows had neither Plasmodium nor Lankesterella in blood films. Resident wild birds from adjacent rural areas, including redwinged blackbirds, boat‐tailed grackles, laughing gulls and meadowlarks, had fewer Plasmodium and Lankesterella than the sparrows. A few Lankesterella were found in the liver or spleen of young redwinged blackbirds, and only 2 of 79 wild birds had the organisms in their heart blood. Plasmodium was found only in meadowlarks and included P. hexamerium and elongatum as well as relictum.

Changing Face of Spring

0 Now that winter snows are thawing and spring buds are starting to unfold, man doffs his heavy overcoat, sniffs the warming air and looks to the sky for signs of spring-the flash of a bluebird or the soft trill of an evening robin. But what is happening to these annual spirited sounds and sights that throughout man's history have symbolized the demise of winter, the return of spring? Where are the birds? Actually the birds are still with us, but the varieties are changing. There are fewer numbers of songbirds and more of the aggressive, annoying birds around man's habitations. Instead of the bright finery of a redbird in the bush, there are the saucy brown feathers of an English sparrow. Instead of the whistle of a thrush, the raucous tones of the grackle burst through the spring air. Where once the warbler dipped its yellow wings, the pigeon-toed pigeon lays a careless egg in a corner niche of a house.

Western equine encephalitis in Saskatchewan birds and mammals 1962-1963.

In Saskatchewan during 1962 and 1963 Western equine encephalitis (WEE) virus was isolated from 23 English sparrows, one Swainson"s hawk, one mourning dove, one Richardson"s ground squirrel, and one chicken from a sentinel or indicator flock. Our findings indicate that these species provide a source of virus for mosquito infection and transmission during the summer months. Antibody studies revealed a wide range of birds and mammals susceptible to the virus. It would appear that WEE isolates obtained from a mature mourning dove and from an adult Richardson"s ground squirrel, May 19, 1962, were the result of latent infection because of the lack of mosquito activity before this date. Infection rates in domestic birds suggest an agreement with the incidence of clinical cases in man and horses during 1962 and 1963.

Coccidia (Protozoa : Eimeriidae) of Domestic Sheep in the United States, with Descriptions of the Sporulated Oocysts of Six Species

Detailed descriptions are given of the sporulated oocysts of the following coccidia from domestic sheep: Eimeria granulosa Christensen, 1938; E. intricata Spiegl, 1925; E. ninakohlyakimovae Yakimoff and Rastegaieff, 1930; E. pallida Christensen, 1938; E. punctata Landers, 1955; and Isospora sp. This is the first report of Isospora from sheep; it resembles I. lacazei of English sparrows, and may not be a true parasite of sheep. In a survey of 153 apparently healthy sheep, mostly from Illinois, 69% were found to have coccidian oocysts in their feces; 24% had E. ahsata, 53% had E. arloingi, 24% had E. crandallis, 6% had E. faurei, 4% had E. granulosa, 7% had E. intricata, 1% had E. ninakohlyakimovae, 6% had E. pallida, 5% had E. parva, 1% had E. punctata, and 1% had Isospora sp. Although coccidia are important parasites of domestic sheep and many papers have been written on them, their speciation, morphologic features, and life cycles are surprisingly poorly known. The literature on sheep coccidia has been reviewed by Becker (1934), Levine (1961), Levine et al. (1962), and Levine, Ivens, and Fritz (1962), and the details will not be repeated here. Moussu and Marotel (1902) named the first ovine species, Eimeria faurei, and described it briefly. At first it was thought that all coccidia of sheep belonged to this species, but later it was recognized that these animals were hosts to a number of Received for publication 21 June 1963. * Present address: College of Veterinary Science, Mhow, Madhya Pradesh, India. The material presented here is taken from a thesis submitted to the University of Illinois in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Master of Science degree in Veterinary Medical Science under the direction of Dr. Norman D. Levine, to whom the author expresses his deep sense of gratitude. The assistance of Drs. M. F. Hansen of Kansas State University, George W. Kelley of the University of Nebraska, and Ferron L. Andersen of Utah State University in supplying sheep fecal samples from their respective states and of Dr. M. E. Mansfield for supplying fecal samples from Dixon Springs Experiment Station, University of Illinois, is acknowledged. Mr. Shah was a student at the University of Illinois under a cooperative program with the Agency for International Development, U. S. Department of State. species. Baloz t (1932a, b, c) and Christensen (1938), among others, did significant research on the sheep coccidia. Becker (1956) and Pellerdy (1956) published checklists of the species. Additional references are given by Shah (1963). At present, ten or eleven species of Eimeria are recognized as occurring in sheep (Levine, 1961): E. ahsata, E. arloingi, E. crandallis, E. faurei, E. gilruthi, E. granulosa, E. intricata (which may be a synonym of E. gilruthi), E. ninakohlyakimovae, E. pallida, E. parva, and E. punctata. However, there is considerable uncertainty regarding the identification of most of these species, primarily because complete descriptions of their sporulated oocysts are la king. Christensen (1938), for instance, described only the unsporulated oocysts of the seven species he discussed, and he illustrated the sporulated oocysts of only two, E. pallida and E. granulosa. Levine et al. (1962) gave a detailed description of the sporulated oocysts of Eimeria ahsata from sheep, and Kamalapur (1961) did the same for E. ahsata, E. arloingi, E. crandallis, E. faurei, and E. parva from sheep. The objectives of the present study were to prepare detailed descriptions of the sporulated oocysts of all the other known coccidia of sheep and to determine the prevalence of all species in Illinois and, to some extent, other parts of the

Progesterone metabolism by testicular tissue of the English sparrow ( Passer domesticus)

Homogenates of testes from the English sparrow ( Passer domesticus) were incubated with progesterone-4-C 14. The pathway of androgen formation from progesterone as well as the requirements for cofactors in this in vitro system were similar to those reported for mammalian testes. The sparrow testes possessed a greater capacity for 20-ketone reduction of progesterone than the mammalian testes hitherto investigated. These enzymatic processes may tend to inactivate progesterone if this steroid hormone is permitted to accumulate in the testicular tissue. It is likely that four enzymes are present in the testes of the English sparrow which will reduce the 20-ketone function of progesterone and 17α-hydroxyprogesterone.

Progesterone metabolism by testicular tissue of the English sparrow ( Passer domesticus) during the annual reproductive cycle

By incubating cell-free testicular tissue homogenates in vitro with 4-C 14-progesterone, an attempt has been made to determine the levels of the 17 α-hydroxylase, 20 α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase, and 20 β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase activities in tissue from English sparrows in different stages of the annual testicular cycle of size and activity. Per milligram testicular protein the 17 α-hydroxylase decreased by a factor of 10 with an increase in testicular weight from 7.2 to 480 mg, whereas the 20-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases remained relatively constant or decreased by only a factor of 2 over similar testicular weight changes. Calculated on a basis of enzyme content per bird the total testicular 17 α-hydroxylase increased by a factor of 3–4, while the 20-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases increased by a factor of 20–40 when the mean testicular weight increased from 7 to about 500 mg. Administration of human chorionic gonadotropin stimulated both the 17 α-hydroxylase and 20-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases, but had a greater effect on the former enzyme. The changes in enzyme activities correlated histologically and suggested that the 20 α- and 20 β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases may be located in the cellular elements of the germinal tissue whereas the 17 α-hydroxylase is of interstitial cell origin. Of the different progesterone metabolites identified from these incubations, only the known androgens, testosterone and androstenedione, promoted blackening of the sparrow beak.

Coccidiosis in Wisconsin Cottontail Rabbits in Winter

Since coccidiosis is generally considered a disease of the warm months of the year, little research has been conducted on its importance and incidence in over-wintering hosts. Boughton (1937), in a study of Isospora infection in the English sparrow in Wisconsin, noted 100 per cent incidence of the coccidia in winter, while Fitzgerald (1959) noted in Utah cattle a decline in incidence from 95 per cent in November to 30 per cent in March. Preliminary sampling of fresh feces of the cottontail rabbit (Sylvilagus floridanus) in Wisconsin indicated that occasional large showers of oocysts occurred in the middle of the winter. To clarify the winter status of this disease, a fecal survey was made during the winters of 1959 to 1960, and 1960 to 1961 near Green Bay, Wisconsin. Although comparative data from the summer months are lacking, this short paper will explore the potential importance of winter infection in the epizootiology of this disease in wild cottontails.

A comparison of the effect of long daily photoperiods on the pattern of energy storage in migratory and non-migratory finches

Caged white-crowned sparrows, Zonotrichia leucophyrs gambelli, when subjected to long daily photoperiods in mid-winter, deposit large amounts of subcutaneous and visceral fat and develop migratory behavior comparable to natural vernal migratory behavior. The altered metabolic state involved in this deposition of fat is characterized by a reduction in glycogen content of the pectoral muscles and liver and a suppression of the diurnal glycogen cycle in these organs. There is also a marked increase in the fat content of these tissues so that the total mobilizable energy in them is considerably greater than in the short-day winter birds. The thigh muscles show a similar reduction in glycogen content but only a very slight increase in fat content. This change in the pattern of energy storage may be regarded as one feature of the scheme which produces the metabolic alterations necessary for sustained migratory flight. The wintering population of the Oregon Junco, Junco oreganus montanus, in southeastern Washington responds, although less extensively, to long daily photoperiods. This may be correlated with its more restricted migratory movements. The non-migratory English sparrow, Passer domesticus, when subjected to long daily photoperiods, shows no such alteration in the pattern of energy storage in pectoral muscle and liver; rather there is a tendency toward a lower level of energy storage. Although Zonotrichia leucophrys gambelii in mid-winter have much less glycogen in pectoral muscle and liver than the indoor caged birds, the pattern of energy storage may be consistent with that of the latter in experimentally induced migratory state if the restricted flight activity of the latter, the precapture activity of the former, and possible differences in temporal pattern of food intake are taken into consideration. The relatively small amount of glycogen available, and the extensive storage of fat, suggest that there must be very extensive use of fat or fatty acids directly by the pectoral muscles during flight.

Abundance of English Sparrows

Abundance of English Sparrows

Isospora sp. (Protozoa: Eimeriidae) from Cattle and Its Relationship to I. lacazei of the English Sparrow

In the course of a survey of coccidia of cattle during the summer and fall of 1959, an Isospora was encountered in three herds of beef cattle in central Illinois. It was thought at first to be a new species, since it did not resemble any other species of Isospora described from ruminants nor did it resemble the published descriptions of any species of Isospora found in other animals which live in contact with cattle. These included I. bigemina, I. rivolta, and I. felis of the dog and cat, I. suis of the pig and I. lacazei of passeriform birds. Later, however, an opportunity presented itself for examining the oocysts of 1. lacazei from the English sparrow, and it was found that they differed from the published illustrations and descriptions of this species and that they were practically indistinguishable from the form found in cattle feces. In addition, a review of the literature revealed that all the figures and descriptions of I. lacazei except those of Scholtyseck (1954) were apparently based on infections of hosts other than the English sparrow. Hence it was felt worthwhile to redescribe this coccidium from this host.

Atoxoplasma Garnham, 1950, as a synonym for Lankesterella Labbé, 1899. Its life cycle in the English sparrow (Passer domesticus domesticus, Linn.)

SYNOPSIS. All of 99 adult English house‐sparrows, examined in the St. Albans area of Hertfordshire, England, were found to be infected with the organism previously defined by Garnham (1950) as Atoxoplasma. Young birds were found to become infected while still in the nests and as early as 6 days after hatching; there was no evidence to suggest that the parasite was transmitted through the egg. Within a few weeks of leaving the nests, all of 150 fledgling sparrows examined were heavily infected and several trapped birds died from massive infections.All stages of schizogony were found in the lymphoid‐macrophage cells of the spleen, bone marrow and liver of these birds; later, as the schizogonic cycle abated, gametocytes developed in similar cells of the liver, lungs and kidney. These gametocytes are of the Eimeria type: the zygote nucleus divides to produce an asporous and polyzoic oocyst containing a large number of sporozoites, and after the rupture of the oocyst these sporozoites invade the lymphocytes and monocytes of the peripheral blood.Transmission of the parasite in the sparrow is thought to take place after the ingestion of infected mites (Dermanyssus gallinae) by the young birds in the nests: unchanged sporozoites were found in smears of these mites that had been fed on infected sparrows. Transmission experiments were impossible due to the complete lack of clean sparrows.The taxonomic status of Atoxoplasma is discussed. The type of life cycle and the production of asporous, polyzoic oocysts indicate inclusion of this parasite in the Order Coccidiida, Family Eimeriidae, Sub‐Family Cryptosporidiinae Hoare, 1933. After comparison of the two genera, the author concludes that Atoxoplasma must be regarded as a synonym for Lankesterella. Some previously described species of Atoxoplasma are, therefore, transferred to the genus Lankesterella.The name Lankesterella garnhami nov. sp., is proposed for the parasite in the English sparrow (Passer domesticus domesticus), and Lankesterella serini nov. sp., for that in the canary (Serinus canarius).

An Attempt to Recover WEE from Nasal Mites of Sparrows

Summary and conclusion1. Twenty days after 44 English sparrows were each inoculated with 140 chick LD50 amount of WEE virus, the collected nasal mites were devoid of virus using Chamberlain's “wet” chick method of isolation. 2. Nasal mites of the English sparrow are probably not important vectors or reservoirs of Western encephalitis virus.

The Monterey Pine (Pinus Radiata) in New Zealand

THE MONTEREY PINE (PINUS RADIATA) IN NEW ZEALAND Michael P. McIntyhe San Jose State College In New Zealand the introduction of exotic plants and animals in an attempt to improve the biotic environment has been a continuing process dating back to the Maori in the pro-European era. However, in an isolated and insular environment such as this, there is an ever-attendant risk that the intricate balances of nature may be upset. The rabbit scourge, highly publicized in Australia but also serious in New Zealand, is frequently cited as the classic example of the near disastrous results of introducing a foreign specie into a region where none of its natural enemies exist. Other examples include the European red deer, the Wapiti (Roosevelt elk), the English sparrow, and the starling, all of which have become unwelcome pests, while Scotch gorse has run rampant over large areas, This list of failures is not long by comparison with the many successes which have gradually transformed the biotic landscape of New Zealand into a southern hemisphere approximation of northwest Europe, Among the more recent of the successful exotics has been the Monterey pine (pimis radiata),1 indigenous to the coast of central California. Although systematic propagation of this tree was not begun until after World War I, its growth lias been so rapid that entire forests are now reaching maturity and their exploitation has brought into existence, within the last four years, the largest softwood timber industry in the southern hemisphere, Wood products now rank fourth in export value in New Zealand, exceeded only by the long established wool, meat, and dairy products industries.2 The tree derives its name from its limited occurrence on the Monterey peninsula and adjacent areas of California, In its natural habitat, the Monterey pine has never been seriously considered as having even a remote timber potential, for not only is its range as restricted as any tree in the United States, but it is typically stunted, knotty, and somewhat slow growing as a result of low precipitation, cool temperatures, high winds, thin soils, and heavy fog. There are no really large stands of pinus radiata even on the peninsula; the groves are widely scattered and are found only as far north as Ano Nuevo point and south to San Simeon on the mainland, Actually , this pine is a relict of the pre-ice period, probably originating in the late Tertiary as an insular endemic when the California coast ranges were ? series of disconnected islands paralleling a more easterly coastline. Isolated trees may still be encountered on islands off the coast of southern California and northern Mexico. 1 Pinus insignis is an older designation for the identical specie. - New Zealand, Department of Statistics, New Zealand Official Yearbook, 1958. Wellington, 1958, p. 489. 59 The major pine forests in New Zealand are located on a broad rolling upland in the north central part of the North Island. Fringed by mountains on all sides except the north, this triangular shaped plateau, its apex at Lake Taupo, its base fronting on the Bay of Plenty, has a total area of almost 3000 square miles. Successive lava flows combined with magmatic intrusions have raised it to its present 500- to 1000-foot elevation, and it is characterized by frequent seismic activity and the widespread occurrence of geysers and steam vents, Locally, the entire region is known as the Pumiceland (Fig. 1). Contrary to common American usage, the term pumice in New Zealand is applied indiscriminately to any and all volcanic ash, and the Pumiceland is mantled throughout with varying thicknesses of ash derived from recently active volcanoes along its southern and southwestern margins. As a result, the original climax vegetation was obliterated. When first viewed by Europeans, the region, despite thirty or more inches of well-distributed rainfall each year, a fifty-five to sixty degree temperature average and, by New Zealand standards, a higher than average incidence of sunshine, had a semi-desert appearance with only a widely spaced tussock grass and stunted scrub cover. The forest oriented Maori had shunned this barren upland, but to Europeans the open country appeared to offer emancipation from laborious and costly clearing of forest...

Chronic latent infections of birds with Western equine encephalomyelitis virus.

SummaryWestern equine encephalomyelitis virus was isolated from tissues of 8 of 284 birds at intervals of 1 to 10 months after experimental infection. Isolations were from Brewer's blackbird, cowbird, tricolored blackbird, house finch and English sparrow. Positive tissues were blood, spleen, liver, lung, brain and gall bladder. The potential importance of birds as long-term reservoirs of virus and sources of vector infection should be determined.

The Influence of Reciprocal Immunity on Eastern and Western Equine Encephalomyelitis Infection in Horses and English Sparrows

Summary Twelve previously uninoculated and 15 WEE-immune English sparrows were inoculated with EEE virus. The average level and duration of viremia did not differ significantly between groups. The control group suffered 50 per cent mortality due to EEE infection, while no deaths occurred in the WEE-immune group. Nine previously uninoculated and 8 EEE-immune English sparrows were inoculated with WEE virus. WEE viremia was of shorter duration and reached lower maximum levels in EEE-immune birds than in the control birds. In three horses previously infected with WEE, infection with EEE did not produce central nervous system symptoms nor deaths. The possible influence of these factors on the epidemiology and geographic distribution of clinical disease produced by these viruses is discussed.

Nationality Names for American Birds

THE USE OF THE NAME Of a nation as the adjectival part of a bird appellation sometimes indicates the country of origin, but much more frequently it has a different meaning. In such combinations as English sparrow, European starling, Chinese pheasant, and Hungarian partridge, at least part of the homeland of an introduced bird is designated. And where acclimatization activities were conspicuous, a bird might acquire a name that would not be thought of elsewhere, as for example, German finch for the evening grosbeak at Portland, Oregon, since this unfamiliar species, when noticed at all, was deemed one of the importations of the bird cranks. Nationality modifiers prevail also among facetious names for birds, but that is another story. More common uses are to convey approbation or to label a species obviously distinct from familiar representatives of its group. Dictionaries incline to the view that the prefix English indicates something met with in America with which the people had previously been acquainted in England. Among American bird names there is some support for, but more evidence against, this hypothesis. English duck (N.C., S.C., Ga., Fla., Ala.) specifies the mallard, a well-known bird of the Old World, as also of the New, but the term is extended to the black duck and the mottled duck, which are strictly American species. Some of the names involved are, for the black duck, black English duck (S.C., Ga., Fla.), English black duck (La.), English duck (N.C., Ga.), and English mallard (Fla.); and for the mottled duck, English duck (Fla.). The generally employed appellation English snipe, for Wilson's snipe, the American subspecies of the common snipe of Europe, gives partial corroboration of the dictionary opinion, but English snipe (Nova Scotia) for the American woodcock tends in the opposite direction. English lark (Del.) is a natural reference to a bird legitimately known as the English starling. English woodpecker (N.Y., Newfoundland) has been applied to the yellow-shafted flicker because of a fanciful resemblance of the bird to the European green woodpecker; the principle we are discussing, in this instance, leading people astray. In every other 'English' name on hand, the purpose of the prefix is recognition of the distinctness of the bird from relatives, real or assumed. For compactness they are here tabulated:

Blood Parasitism in the English Sparrow, with Certain Biological Implications

Since the English sparrow (or house sparrow), Passer domesticus doilicsticts, is one of the commonest of birds, both here and in many other parts of the world, it might seem that everything concerning its parasites would have been discovered long since. To a certain extent this is indeed the case, and yet study of the literature shows many gaps, and also suggests that little consideration has been given to the possible broader biological significance of certain facts, such as seasonal and geographic variations in parasite incidence, differences in incidence among host species of parasitism by certain species or genera, etc. Our interest in the parasites of the English sparrow (not really a sparrow at all, but a member of the Old World family Ploceidae, or weaver birds) began a number of years ago, and we have been trapping these birds, except for a period of World War II, since 1935. Most of the birds used in the present study, hlowever, were captured during the past 5 years. Many were taken on the University campus and the rest in the little town of Fayetteville, about 9 miles East of Syracuse. The method of study has involved the use of Romanowski-stained blood films, the inoculation of other birds (either canaries or other English sparrows) with blood from suspected cases of malarial infection, the examination microscopically of tissue preparations from sparrows dying naturally or killed, and the inoculation of white mice with brain suspensions from such sparrows to reveal possible Tox.oplasma infections. \lhen sparrows were used as test animals for the discovery of what might be called occult malaria in other sparrows, the birds were simply divided at random into pairs, after failure to find evidence of malaria in blood films, and each was then inoculated with 0.25 ml of blood from the other, usually intravenously. Canaries were used for subinoculation from cases already shown to be positive, in order to secure laboratory infections for further study. Mice inoculated with brain suspensions were observed for 2 weeks for indications of toxoplasmosis, and then killed and subinoculations of suspensions from them were made into a second series of mice, before regarding negative findings as confirmed. A summary of the results of this study and of a number of previous ones appears in Table I. The total number of sparrows examined by us (703), included 303 adults and 400 immatures. These birds have been trapped in every season of the year, although of course no juveniles were caught in the winter or early spring. Although the sparrows studied in different seasons and different years have not been equal in numbers, it is believed that the spread in time has been sufficient to give a reasonably balanced picture, free from such distortions as those which might