English Language Teaching Industry Research Articles

Racism in China's English Language Teaching Industry: English as a Race‐Making Technology

AbstractThis article argues that racism is pervasive in China's English language teaching (ELT) industry, yet it is often ignored. It presents that English language education in China should be understood historically in a way that recognizes English as a racializing technology. As a race‐making technology, English has continued making modern Chinese subjects while also posing a threat to Chineseness in the 21st century. This intertwining of race and the English language has translated into a massive ELT industry in China that reproduces whiteness, influencing hiring practices and preferences for White English teachers. Additionally, race intersects with gender, nationality, and class, leading to a highly racialized and gendered ELT industry, exemplified in discourses of “foreign experts” and “foreign trash” popular in China's context. The article concludes by asserting that the English language, as a race‐making technology, has structured the ELT industry, and discussing its implications for future research and practical changes to challenge intersectional racism in the industry.

The Prevailing Issue of Native Speakerism: A Critical Discourse Analysis of ELT Institutions’ Websites

The English language teaching (ELT) industry has been expanding in China, and at present there are private online ELT institutions which provide English lessons which focus mainly on communication skills. The official websites of these institutions not only provide information about the programmes offered but also communicate their English language teaching pedagogical beliefs and stances. This paper aims to examine the language use in these websites and to explore how it reflects language ideologies. The websites of nine Chinese online ELT institutions were selected. Textual data were collected from the front page and subfields of these websites and were subjected to a critical discourse analysis based on Fairclough’s (1995) three-dimensional methodology. The findings suggest that there is a prevailing bias toward native-speakerism language ideology in the ELT industry. This emerged from the use of intentional vocabulary and word choice for their marketing campaigns. Repeated use of these words normalizes the authoritative image of teachers who are native English speakers. Additionally, these institutions also adopt multiple discursive strategies which intensify the stereotype of native speakerism to the public whilst seeming to discriminate against teachers who are not native speakers of English. The findings shed light on social inequity and biases in private online ELT institutions.

Revisiting Effects of Native Speakerism on Thai Teachers and Students in the Age of English as a Lingua Franca

Currently, the role of English language has changed from being a language used among native English speakers (NESs) to being a language spoken by people of various backgrounds or known as English as a lingua franca (ELF). This phenomenon has affected different aspects of global English usage and users across the world. However, in Thailand, this issue does not seem to be taken into account with regard to English language teaching (ELT) and learning practices as different ELT stakeholders continue to conform to traditional teaching methods related to NESs. This action is reflected in an English language ideology called ‘native speakerism’ which has long been entrenched in Thai society. It has repeatedly caused different problems for both Thai teachers and students of English language until the present day. This review article aims to demonstrate the impacts of the native speakerism ideology on Thai teachers and students of English language in the period of English as a global lingua franca. The article begins with an explanation of how the changes of role and status of English challenge traditional perspectives of English language and how the ELT industry around the world, including in Thailand, should adapt to such changes. Then, the article gives brief conceptualizations of native speakerism and its effects on English teachers and students. Finally, it moves on to discuss the native speakerism ideology in Thailand and reports different negative effects of native speakerism on Thai teachers and students of English language.

Precarious Employment in the Chilean English Language Teaching Industry

This study investigates the degree of precarious employment in the Chilean English language teaching industry. We recruited a random sample of two hundred and twenty-three English teachers from the primary and secondary schools, Universities, as well as Private English Institutes through an online survey. A cross-sectional study of the socio-demographic variables of precarious employment was conducted through the analysis of proportional variances according to gender, age, school curriculum, educational qualification, and teaching status. Nine indicators represented the six dimensions of the Employment Precariousness Construct were adopted for the measurement. The results revealed that the majority (56.8%) of English teachers have temporary contracts. Although the degree of precariousness was higher in dimensions comprising temporariness, wages, rights, and the exercise of rights, vulnerability among teachers holding temporary contracts comparing with those possessing permanent contracts, there was no significant difference between the two groups concerning the dimension of disempowerment. Overall, our results showed that the level of precarious employment in the industry is moderately low. Implications of the results and future research directions are presented.

The British Council’s role in nourishing the English language teaching industry in the Gulf Cooperation Council region: a visual social semiotic perspective

ABSTRACT Although the interlocking of the British Council with wider political and economic activities and interests is well documented in some parts of the world (Pennycook, A. 2017. The Cultural Politics of English as an International Language. New York: Pearson; Phillipson, R. 2017. “Myths and Realities of ‘Global’ English.” Language Policy 16 (3): 313–331; Rapatahana, V., and P. Bunce. 2012. English Language as Hydra: Its Impacts on Non- English Language Cultures. Bristol: Multilingual Matters), precious little has been written on how the British Council is constructing the reality of the English language as an ‘unstoppable juggernaut’ (Demont-Heinrich, C. 2007. “The Ideological Construction of the Juggernaut of English: A Critical Analysis of American Prestige Press Coverage of the Globalisation of Language.” Studies in Language and Capitalism 2: 107–144) in parts of the Arab world. This paper scrutinizes the ways through which the British Council is nourishing the highly acclaimed English Language Teaching industry in the six member Arab states of the Gulf Cooperation Council: Qatar, Kuwait, Oman, Bahrain, United Arab Emirates, and Saudi Arabia. This issue will be explored through visual social semiotics analysis of nine videos that were published on the British Council’s six websites of the Gulf Cooperation Council member states to promote various courses and programs in the region.

Freelance language teachers: Negotiating authenticity and legitimacy at the periphery

This multiple case study explores the means through which freelance teachers establish their legitimacy in their classrooms outside of formal institutions. The data in this study were examined through the lens of Bourdieu’s (1986) social theory of capital and Van Leeuwen’s (2007) theory of authority. The perceived legitimacy of four core participants was examined using interviews, observations, and collection of artifacts. Native speaker (NS) and nonnative speaker (NNS) differences were found to be an important factor, and legitimacy was found to be highly context dependent, with some teachers constructing their legitimacy in contexts where being an NNS is advantageous. Some freelance teachers’ legitimacy is constructed around experience gained outside of the English language teaching (ELT) industry and through offering access to authentic second language contexts to their students. A minority of freelance teachers have identified pedagogical gaps in the ELT industry and have flourished in their own special market niches. The emic approach employed in this study shows that teacher legitimacy is more nuanced and context‐dependent than the simple NS/NNS dichotomy.

Toward Increased Professionalism in Teaching English as a Second or Other Language through Pre-service Trainee Teacher Mentoring in the United Arab Emirates

For a variety of reasons, both historical and sociological, the feasibility – as well as the very desirability – of mainstream teaching securing the status of a profession (in the sense of established professions such as law, medicine, architecture, and engineering) has long been questioned (e.g., Burbules and Densmore, 1991). If this is the case as regard regular, mainstream education, what then is the situation in relation to the subfield of teaching that is teaching English as a second or other language (TESOL)? Sadly, few if any would likely doubt that the field has so far failed to achieve the status of a recognized profession. There are numerous causes of this failure, though some especially salient reasons – less than stellar public perceptions of the fields of English as a second language/English as a foreign language, employment standards of the private sector, that is, the (in) famous English language teaching industry, the initial training and qualifications of those in the field, and discriminatory practices – will be highlighted in the following discussion. In addition, the second half of this paper draws and reflects on a trainee teacher mentoring scheme at a federally-sponsored institution of higher education in the United Arab Emirates – now sadly discontinued – which the author participated in for 3 years between 2011 and 2015, and which, it is argued, exemplified programs which can go some not inconsiderable way toward combatting a number of the obstacles currently preventing the field of TESOL achieving the status of a legitimate profession.

Discrimination Behind Nest and Nnest Dichotomy in ELT Pofesionalism

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Legitimating the Philippines as a language learning space: Transnational Korean youth's experiences and evaluations

This paper examines how a peripheral English‐speaking country is constructed as a legitimate language learning space in the global English language teaching (ELT) industry by investigating South Koreans’ recent engagement in Philippine English education. It focuses on a short‐term English study abroad program, in which the Philippines serves as a transit place prior to students’ moving to a Western English‐speaking country. Drawing data from ethnographic research on South Korean youth studying English abroad, the article analyzes why Korean students seek Philippine English education in spite of their apparent pursuit of authentic English, and how they evaluate their learning experience in the Philippines. This paper finds that the Philippines holds a niche market in the global ELT industry by separating a space for English learning from other public and everyday spaces of English use and offering pedagogically intensive but emotionally supportive environments to English learners.

Korean University Students‟ Perceptions of Teacher Motivational Strategies

ELT (English Language Teaching) is a significant component of the Korean Education system from elementary school to university. The ELT industry is comprised of two distinct types of teachers: Native English speakers and Native Korean speakers. While both groups share similar educational goals, there is often very little interaction between the two groups. Both groups spend considerable time with students and have considerable influence on students studying English in South Korea. The goal of this research was to see what students thought of the motivational strategies employed by each group, in hopes of being able to see how both groups could learn from each other. Motivation is one of the most important elements of language learning and this research hoped to find how each group of teachers motivated students. The focal point of this research was a survey focusing on a set of motivational strategies identified by Dornyei. This survey adapted Dornyei’s survey to focus on how the students perceived the strategies, rather than how teachers assessed their own motivational strategies. The survey was given to two groups, students in an undergraduate level Practical English course and to students in a graduate level interpretation and translation department to see how the students perceived the motivational strategies of each group. The survey revealed a few clear cut differences among each group. The surveys showed that Native English teachers provided instinct motivation through various tasks and by creating a positive classroom environment. Native Korean speakers excelled in creating extrinsic motivation, by providing realistic goals and by stressing the importance of English in the working world. https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.16.9.3

English in Cameroon: Issues of Teacher Language Proficiency

Over the last three decades, the standards of English in Cameroon as well as the performance of students in theEnglish language at the General Certificate of Education (GCE) examination have been on a steady decline. Whilemany Cameroonians keep making their way into the English language teaching industry as a result of the rapidexpansion of English as a global lingua franca, the quality of language input administered to learners seems to leavemuch to desire. Thus, although a number of studies have attributed the continuous downward spiralling of standardsto a variety of reasons, this study set out to investigate the extent to which teachers of English as a second language(ESL) in Cameroon master the language they teach, as a demonstration that the teacher is one of the major problemsto be addressed. Our main objectives were to test teachers’ language skills. Employing the Homogeneous PurposiveSampling Technique, a total of 40 ESL teachers in Tiko and Buea Sub-divisions of the South West Region ofCameroon were investigated using questionnaires and interviews. Of the 40, 36 showed difficulties with spelling, 33with punctuation, 30 with pronunciation, 28 with capitalization, 27 with sentence construction, and five withagreement.

Lacking the right aesthetic

Purpose – Expertise in English language teaching (ELT) is determined by being a white native speaker of English. Therefore, ELT is a type of aesthetic labour because workers are expected to look and sound a particular way. As nonwhite teachers cannot perform this labour, they may experience employment discrimination in the form of racial microaggressions, which are everyday racial slights. The purpose of this paper is to investigate what types of microaggressions inform several nonwhite teachers that they cannot perform aesthetic labour in private language schools in Toronto, Canada. Design/methodology/approach – The paper utilizes a critical race methodology in which several nonwhite teachers told stories of racial microaggressions. Findings – The teachers were told that they lacked the right aesthetic through microaggressions involving employers being confused about their names, questioning their language backgrounds, and citing customer preferences. Research limitations/implications – Future research must find out whether nonwhite teachers experience discrimination throughout Canada. Other studies must investigate how intersecting identity markers affect teachers’ employment prospects. Practical implications – To prevent the discrimination of nonwhite teachers (in Canada), increased regulation is needed. The international ELT industry also needs to fight against the ideology that English is a white language. Originality/value – There is little literature that examines language/racial discrimination in the Canadian ELT industry and how this discrimination is articulated to teachers.

Critiquing Economic Values in English Language Teaching: Materials Problems and Critical Solutions Facing Teachers

This paper contends that the English language teaching industry is implicitly imbued with Western cultural values which, whilst emanating from the ideological discourse of colonialism, have now evolved into an aggressive corporate colonialism. An examination of various materials employed in ELT finds that they are saturated with market driven Western values and product placements, which, if not explicated properly, can confuse students who may come from very different schematic backgrounds (Widdowson, 1990). A more critical classroom approach is therefore advocated, where foreign English language students are encouraged to use vocabulary to critique cultural contents encountered in ELT materials, affording them the chance to engage with English more dynamically. A 2012 teaching approach is described, which sought to achieve this aim within the context of a Japanese university English conversation class. The effectiveness of this approach is then assessed and discussed through the examination of quantitative and qualitative student response data. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/nelta.v18i1-2.10327 Journal of NELTA, Vol 18 No. 1-2, December 2013; 18-30

Native and Non-Native English Language Teachers

The English language teaching industry in East and Southeast Asia subscribes to an assumption that native English-speaking teachers (NESTs) are the gold standard of spoken and written language, whereas non-native English-speaking teachers (non-NESTs) are inferior educators because they lack this innate linguistic skill. But does this premise correspond with the views of second language learners? This article reports on research carried out with university students in Vietnam and Japan exploring the advantages and disadvantages of learning English from NESTs and non-NESTs. Contrary to the above notion, our research illuminated a number of perceived advantages—and disadvantages—in both types of teachers. Students viewed NESTs as models of pronunciation and correct language use, as well as being repositories of cultural knowledge, but they also found NESTs poor at explaining grammar, and their different cultures created tension. Non-NESTs were perceived as good teachers of grammar, and had the ability to resort to the students’ first language when necessary. Students found classroom interaction with non-NESTs easier because of their shared culture. Non-NESTs’ pronunciation was often deemed inferior to that of NESTs, but also easier to comprehend. Some respondents advocated learning from both types of teachers, depending on learners’ proficiency and the skill being taught.

English in the age of globalization: Changing ELT models, restructuring relationships

I. IntroductionTowards end of 20th century English became a truly global language and since then it has kept its privileged position among other languages. It is estimated that English is spoken by about 1.5 billion people all over (Crystal 1997:5). The term 'global English' reflects various functions English serves on all continents. In Inner Circle countries, to use Kachru's terminology (Kachru & Nelson 2001), it is first and majority group language. In Outer Circle countries, for example India, Pakistan, Singapore and Nigeria, English is used as a second language together with other languages as a means of intranational communication and in Expanding Circle, which covers an unspecified number of countries, English is largely taught as a foreign language in schools.Beyond shadow of a doubt has English become major lingua franca and has achieved a high level of international significance. None of previously established lingua francas, whether it was Latin in times of flourishing Roman Empire, French in 18th and 19th centuries, Russian imposed as common foreign language in Eastern Europe after Second World War or artificially created Esperanto, influenced international communication on such a large scale as English has done in past few decades. In general, two opposing perspectives can be traced in discourse on global use of English. Crystal (1997) and Wardhaugh (1987), for example, perceive dominant role of English in communication as a natural outcome of collaboration of several historical and cultural factors which have helped language to achieve its special position. As Wardhaugh comments: What is remarkable about English and what makes it unique is extent to which it has spread throughout world. No other language has ever had influence in affairs that English has today (Wardhaugh 1987: 131).These ideas are opposed by a wave of critical voices who emphasize interdependence between worldwide use of English and ideological, political, and commercial interests of core Inner Circle countries, mainly UK and USA. In this field seminal work of Robert Phillipson (1992) on linguistic imperialism has probably been most influential in inspiring further research into politics of English and English language teaching (ELT) (Pennycook 1994, 1998), (Singh, Kell & Pandian 2002). These authors argue that universal presence of English is a result of pursuing political and economic interests and of effort of British and Americans to maintain control over English language, often with support of national organizations and ELT industry. In other words, they link global English closely with linguistic and cultural imperialism of English speaking countries. An obvious question arises here: was rise of English as language just a natural outcome of English language being 'in right place at right time' or is it more a result of power struggles and deliberate policies?In this article we intend to examine connections between spread of English, ELT business, and distribution of power between native and nonnative English speaking communities. Secondly, we will discuss implications of global use of English for ELT profession and describe potential of ELT pedagogy for restructuring existing power relationships. As for terminology, we will make use of Phillipson's notions of Centre and Periphery. The first term refers to core English speaking countries, while latter involves regions in which English is used as a second language (mainly former British colonies) or taught as a foreign language. Here Eastern Europe, which at beginning of 1990s emerged as the new postcolonial world (Wallace 2002: 108), occupies an important place. The divisive line between Centre and Periphery is drawn along linguistic differences between native and non-native English speaking communities as well as along differences in their economic and technological development. …

Relocating English: towards a new paradigm for English in the world

The worldwide spread of English has recently received much interest. Issues relating to the multifaceted roles of English around the world have been highlighted and purist positions about English challenged. In particular (a) the assumption that British English is the only valid standard of English; and (b) the notion that the ‘native speaker’ is the only model that all learners should aspire to have been put to question. Based on the premise that these positions are incompatible with the complex reality of English worldwide, the necessity of a paradigm shift in English language teaching (ELT) has been advocated, whereby such purist tenets would have to change. However, the impact of academic debate on language teaching practice has been marginal. I argue that this state of affairs is attributable not only to the predilection for a monochrome form of English in the ELT industry and pedagogical practice, but also to shortcomings within academic discourse. The continued search for alternative models for ELT may be misleading, while a more effective response to the Anglo-American domination of ELT may in ensuring that classroom practice reflects more faithfully the process of acculturation of English that is taking place around the world. La diffusione dell'inglese nel mondo ha ricevuto grande interesse recentemente. Sono state messe in luce questioni riguardanti I diversi ruoli dell'inglese nel mondo e, al contempo, si sono messe in dicussione le posizioni più puriste precedenti. Due idee che sono state criticate in maniera particolare sono (a) che l'inglese britannico sia l'unico standard valido; e (b) che il parlante ‘di madre lingua’ costituisca il solo modello al quale debba aspirare ogni studente. Basandosi sulla premsessa che tali posizioni sono incompatibili con la complessa realtà dell'inglese nel mondo, è stato suggerito che sia necessario un cambio di paradigma nell'insegnamento dell'inglese come lingua straniera. Ciononostante, il dibattito accademico ha avuto finora poco impatto sulla practica pedagogica. In questo articolo spiego il mio convincimento che questa situazione sia dovuta non solo alla predilezione per un inglese monocromatico nel campo dell'insegnamento dell'inglese (sia come impresa commerciale sia a livello prettamente pedagogico), ma anche a certi difetti insiti nel discorso accademico stesso. La continua ricerca di modelli di inglese alternativi potrebbe essere fuorviante, mentre una risposta più efficacie al dominio anglo-americano nell'insegnamento andrebbe individuata nell'assicurarsi che la pratica pedagogica rifletta più fedelmente il processo di acculturizzazione dell'inglese che è in atto nel mondo.

Migrant Brokers of the Global Tongue: A Case Study in Guadalajara, Mexico

The great demand for English language instruction worldwide has resulted in an occupational segment of migrant English teachers (METs) employed in educational settings and the private sector around the globe. Skill requirements and employment conditions vary considerably between non-English speaking regions, and preconceived notions of these conditions factor into the migrant's decision to live and work there. Exploring the social position of METs in Guadalajara, Mexico, along with their decision to migrate there, this article pursues the problem of how language and power are connected in social process. METs operate within the structures of a global-oriented form—the English language teaching (ELT) industry—and their position as a migrant in any given society is determined by the interaction of local and global ideologies concerning the ELT industry and, more generally, the global economic order.

Comparative Perspectives on Islamic Identity and Issues of Education in the Aftermath of September 11, 2001Confronting Islamophobia in Educational Practice edited by Barry van Driel. Stoke‐on‐Trent, UK: Trentham, 2004. xiii+209 pp. $27.50 (paper). ISBN 1‐85856‐340‐2.Islam and English in the Post‐9/11 Era edited by Sohail Karmani and Sinfree Makoni. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 2005. 95 pp. $30.00 (paper). ISBN 0‐8058‐9483‐7 (originally

Comparative Perspectives on Islamic Identity and Issues of Education in the Aftermath of September 11, 2001<i>Confronting Islamophobia in Educational Practice</i> edited by Barry van Driel. Stoke‐on‐Trent, UK: Trentham, 2004. xiii+209 pp. $27.50 (paper). ISBN 1‐85856‐340‐2.<i>Islam and English in the Post‐9/11 Era</i> edited by Sohail Karmani and Sinfree Makoni. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 2005. 95 pp. $30.00 (paper). ISBN 0‐8058‐9483‐7 (originally

English in Colombia: a sociolinguistic profile

This paper intends to make a contribution to the study of the spread of the English language in Colombia. To characterize this social and cultural context, I draw a sociolinguistic profile following the framework provided by Berns (1990, 1992). Although English has no official status in Colombia and its functional range is still restricted, it has expanded at a pace not experienced before. There is a growing consensus that English has a role to play in Colombia's social and economical advancement in the international arena. This is evidenced in the educational policies and programs contributing to securing a prominent position for English in the national curriculum as well as in the unprecedented boom of the English language teaching industry.The paper begins by providing an overview of Colombia and its linguistic makeup, briefly tracing the presence of the English language from the eighteenth century to date. Then it goes on to characterize the users and uses of English documenting how the interpersonal, instrumental, and creative/innovative functions are manifested in this particular setting. Next, the paper describes the attitudinal range towards the English language, its speakers, and its study as well as the process of borrowing, adaptation, and innovation. It concludes by highlighting the need for additional research to further define this particular socio–cultural milieu of learning and use of English. It is argued that further research has a central role in informing the determination of relevant and appropriate models for language teaching in Colombia.