English Language Outcomes Research Articles

Meta-analysis of Technology-Enabled Mindfulness-Based Programs for Negative Affect and Mindful Awareness

Existing meta-analyses of mindfulness-based programs (MBPs) suggest inconsistent effects, and few focus on technology-enabled MBPs. Technology-enabled MBPs are programs delivered via the Internet in web apps, which are accessed through Internet browsers, or native apps, which are applications installed directly on smart mobile devices. This meta-analysis provides an updated synthesis of technology-enabled MBPs’ effects on negative affect and mindfulness and discusses the role of moderators in these effects. A search was conducted through August 2019 of databases PubMed, Ovid MEDLINE, PsychINFO, and the website MINDFULNET.org for original randomized clinical trials focused on technology-enabled MBPs. Additional inclusion criteria included English language publications and outcome measures of negative affect and/or measures of mindful awareness. A medium effect was observed of technology-enabled MBPs on stress (Hedges g = − 0.47, 95% CI − 1.02 to 0.21, p < 0.01). Small effects were observed on symptoms of anxiety (Hedges g = − 0.21, 95% CI − 0.39 to − 0.03, p = 0.02) and depression (Hedges g = − 0.25, 95% CI − 0.37 to − 0.12, p < 0.01) as well as mindful awareness (g = 0.4, 95% CI 0.54 to 0.07, p < 0.01). Multivariate regressions and general linear models revealed that intervention duration, percentage of women participants, human-supported interventions, and type of control condition contributed significantly to effect size variability. Technology-enabled MBPs included in this analysis demonstrated small to medium effects on outcomes of negative affect and mindfulness. Variability in study outcomes appears to be related to experimental and intervention characteristics.

Academic and English language outcomes for DLLs as a function of school bilingual education model: the role of two-way immersion and home language support

ABSTRACT This study assesses the long-term linguistic and academic outcomes associated with different bilingual language education models for low-income dual language learners (DLLs) residing in a bilingual, bicultural context. As part of the Miami School Readiness Project (MSRP), we analyzed the impact of program model on gains in English language proficiency and 5th grade standardized achievement in reading and math and grade point average (GPA) for five cohorts of DLLs followed throughout elementary school. Participants had been enrolled in public pre-K programs or received childcare subsidies to attend center- or family-childcare from 2002 to 2007 in Miami-Dade County, Florida (N = 20,870). Controlling for several student-level background variables correlated with educational outcomes, correlational and multiple regression analyses revealed that bilingual, rather than monolingual, forms of instruction were associated with acquiring English faster and superior performance in all measures of 5th grade academic achievement. Importantly, two-way immersion models that support the home language and culture and integrate language majority and minority learners were associated with faster English acquisition, which mediated the link between Two-Way Immersion (TWI) programs and higher GPAs. We discuss the implications of our findings for educational policy and practice and highlight future research directions.

Exploring Quantity and Diversity of Informal Digital Learning of English (IDLE): A Review of Selected Paper

This article reviews research on informal digital English (IDLE) learning that has increased in the field of English language teaching to other language speakers and computer-assisted language learning written by Ju Seong Lee (2019), entitled Quantity and Diversity of informal digital learning of English published by Language Learning &amp; Technology. This present paper uses descriptive qualitative analysis in an attempt to understand how the quantity and diversity of IDLE can make a unique contribution to the English language outcomes of EFL learners from the researcher's perspective. Lee uses hierarchical linear regression analysis to show that IDLE Quantity, Age, and Major are significant predictors of two affective variables (Confidence and Pleasure), while IDLE Diversity and Major significantly predict productive language outcomes (Speaking and Productive Vocabulary Knowledge), score in the standard English Test (TOEIC), and one affective variable (Lack of Anxiety). This present article aims to review and discuss the findings on the strengths and the weaknesses found in Lee’s 2019 article. The article Lee made seems to possess a clear flow on how to explain these two types of education and make this article easy to understand. Therefore, the replication of Lee’s research is easy enough for similar research purposes.

Comparing the Utility of Predictor Variables at University Level

This quantitative research study investigated the predictive utility of six separate predictor variables; self-efficacy scales, teacher ratings, prior performances, students’ study habits, perceived attitudes, as well as the reliability of self-reporting instruments. Anticipated English language outcomes across all measures were compared with end-of-term scores using significance testing (0.05) and Pearson’s Correlation Coefficient. The sample population consisted of 84 third year university students (females = 51; males = 33) studying at a private university located on the outskirts of Bangkok, and were from two separate faculties; business administration (n = 58) and engineering (n = 26). Overall, the mean level of English language performance was 59.94%, and comparative to which, the most reliable predictor of academic performance were self-efficacy scales (S.E: 60.07%; not sig, p &lt;0.05), which also manifested a relatively close correlation (r = 0.5598). Likewise, teacher ratings (57.98, not sig, p &lt;0.05) were almost as precise, and highly correlative (r = 0.7068), but considered to be less pragmatic owing to potential subjectivity in non-experimental conditions. However, contrary to previous research, students’ prior performances (54.36) were significantly inferior to end-of term attainments, despite the inference of a strong correlation (r = 0.842). Moreover, study habits (42.14) and attitudes towards English (76.31) were grossly inaccurate with minimal correlative value. Separately, results generated from self-reported instruments closely resembled the students’ official grades (prior: 54.36 vs. reported: 55.37%; r = 0.9393); notwithstanding this level of accuracy, the efficiency of this instrument may be put into question when researching debuting students with little academic history. Thus, in terms of overall dependability and practicality, self-efficacy judgments were classified as the most efficacious means of predicting academic performance. Key Words: Self-efficacy, predictor, attainments, performance, variable DOI : 10.7176/IKM/9-3-07 Publication date :March 31 st 2019

Keeping up and forging ahead: English language outcomes of proficient bilingual adolescents in the United States

Research on the English language outcomes of bilingual adolescents is limited, particularly for the subgroup of proficient bilingual adolescents who are not classified as limited English proficient. The current study addresses this gap by investigating the correlates of English language outcomes in a group of proficient bilingual adolescents in grades 5–7 (n = 37), a pivotal stage of development due to the entry to adolescence and school transition. To examine the similarities and differences in English language development between monolingual and bilingual adolescents, the study also compares bilingual adolescents with a group of monolingual native English speakers (n = 23) who are comparable in age, socio-economic status and content instruction. All participants completed a background survey and five English language tests. The results showed that bilingual adolescents performed comparably to their monolingual peers in all English proficiency tasks. Their self-ratings of reading and writing ability were significantly higher than those of their monolingual peers. Among bilingual adolescents, those who reported more frequent reading and use of English scored higher in grammar and speech production tasks. They were also more confident in their English speaking and reading skills.

Privileging bilingualism: Using biliterate writing outcomes to understand emerging bilingual learners’ literacy achievement

ABSTRACTLanguage planning and policy with regard to bilingual education are greatly influenced by the ideologies outlined by Richard Ruiz. In this article, we demonstrate that Ruiz’s language-as-resource orientation requires that we use two-language assessments to study how program models are both developing and conserving the languages that students bring to school. We demonstrate through a study of students’ writing how scholars might use such assessments to privilege bilingualism and present a more complete understanding of students’ biliteracy development that counters the use of bilingualism in service to the hegemony of English, even when the same study includes a comparison of English outcomes of students in paired literacy as compared to students in English-only models. Findings reveal that students in paired literacy are becoming comparably literate in the domain of writing in Spanish and English as measured by a Biliteracy Writing Rubric. Furthermore, when their English language outcomes are compared to those of their peers in English-only contexts, the differences are found to be statistically insignificant.

The Long-Term English Language and Literacy Outcomes of First-Generation Former Child Immigrants in the United States

Background/Context Children from Asian ethnic backgrounds currently constitute the second largest group of child immigrants in the United States. Although stereotyped as model minority students due to their academic and economic success, studies have revealed that many Asian immigrant students struggle in school. Research has also shown that, compared to child immigrants from an Indo-European language background such as Spanish and French, Asian child immigrants experience more challenges in learning English as a second language (L2) due to greater cross-linguistic differences. However, little is known about the long-term English language outcomes of first-generation Asian child immigrants. Purpose/Objective The present study examines the effects of learner-level and input-level factors on first-generation Asian child immigrants’ long-term English outcomes. Research Design Data for the current study are selected from a larger correlational and cross-sectional study that examined the effect of the age of arrival variable on Chinese immigrants’ English L2 outcomes. We used two criteria to select participants from the larger study: (1) those who had arrived in the United States between the ages of 5 to 18 (to qualify as a “child immigrant”), and (2) those who had resided in the United States for at least 10 years (to examine long-term outcomes). These criteria resulted in the current sample of 69 participants. The English language proficiency data include participants’ phonological production ratings, performances on a grammaticality judgment task, and their self-ratings of English proficiency in listening, speaking, reading, and writing. Conclusions/Recommendations The current study showed a complex interplay of factors affecting former child immigrants’ English L2 acquisition. Although age of arrival played a critical role in their L2 learning outcomes, it exerted varying degrees of influence by L2 domain. Age of arrival was a strong predictor of L2 phonological production, grammar knowledge, and oral language proficiency, but not literacy skills. L2 input, language learning aptitude, and child immigrants’ affective status also contributed to their L2 outcomes, and carried more weight than age of arrival. We interpreted the results to be in line with the multiple sensitive period hypothesis in developmental psycholinguistics research. The results also suggested that literacy is not susceptible to age-related effects in the same way in which oral language and more specifically the phonological and syntactic systems are. Literacy as a cultural construct rather than a biologically unique human system is intensively taught throughout the school years and curriculum. Malleable factors, such as instruction and reading strategies, are thus perhaps more important in determining child immigrants’ long-term literacy outcomes.

Dual language versus English-only support for bilingual children with hearing loss who use cochlear implants and hearing aids.

There is a critical need to understand better speech and language development in bilingual children learning two spoken languages who use cochlear implants (CIs) and hearing aids (HAs). The paucity of knowledge in this area poses a significant barrier to providing maximal communicative outcomes to a growing number of children who have a hearing loss (HL) and are learning multiple spoken languages. In fact, the number of bilingual individuals receiving CIs and HAs is rapidly increasing, and Hispanic children display a higher prevalence of HL than the general population of the United States. In order to serve better bilingual children with CIs and HAs, appropriate and effective therapy approaches need to be designed and tested, based on research findings. This study investigated the effects of supporting both the home language (Spanish) and the language of the majority culture (English) on language outcomes in bilingual children with HL who use CIs and HAs as compared to their bilingual peers who receive English-only support. Retrospective analyses of language measures were completed for two groups of Spanish- and English-speaking bilingual children with HL who use CIs and HAs matched on a range of demographic and socio-economic variables: those with dual-language support versus their peers with English-only support. Dependent variables included scores from the English version of the Preschool Language Scales, 4th Edition. Bilingual children who received dual-language support outperformed their peers who received English-only support at statistically significant levels as measured by Total Language and Expressive Communication as raw and language age scores. No statistically significant group differences were found on Auditory Comprehension scores. In addition to providing support in English, encouraging home language use and providing treatment support in the first language may help rather than hinder development of both English and the home language in bilingual children with HL who use CIs and HAs. In fact, dual-language support may yield better overall and expressive English language outcomes than English-only support for this population.

Individual Consultations

Responding to calls for research into measurable English language outcomes from individual language support consultations at universities, this study investigated the effect of individual consultations (ICs) on the academic writing skills and lexico-grammatical competence of students who speak English as an additional language (EAL). Attendance by 31 EAL students at ICs was recorded, and samples of their academic writing texts before and after a 9-month interval were compared. Participants’ academic writing skills were rated, and lexico-grammatical irregularities were quantified. No statistically significant positive shifts manifested, due to the relatively short research period and limited participant uptake, but there were encouraging predictors of future shifts given continued utilization of the service. First, although a Wilcoxon signed-rank test showed no association between attendance at ICs and shifts in academic writing ability, a Spearman’s rho calculation suggested a tentative relationship to positive pre–post shifts in three academic writing sub-skills: Task Fulfillment, Grammar, and Vocabulary. Second, instances of four common lexico-grammatical irregularities (subject/verb, wrong word, plural/singular, and punctuation) declined at post-testing. Although only regular, sustained attendance would produce statistically significant shifts, there is a potential association between participants’ use of ICs and improved academic writing skills/lexico-grammatical competence.

Dutch and English literacy and language outcomes of dyslexic students in regular and bilingual secondary education

An increasing number of schools in the Netherlands offer bilingual (secondary) education, usually combining Dutch with English. As yet, it remains unclear whether students with dyslexia are able to cope in this type of educational setting. To address this question, the oral language and literacy skills of dyslexic and non-dyslexic students attending regular and bilingual VWO (pre-university) secondary education were compared. Results confirmed the benefits to English proficiency offered by this type of education as found in earlier studies (Van der Leij et al., 2010; Verspoor et al., 2010). In addition, dyslexic students at bilingual schools scored significantly higher on English literacy and language tasks than their dyslexic peers in regular programmes, suggesting that bilingual secondary education is not too difficult for students with dyslexia and may in fact be just as beneficial for this group as for non-dyslexics.

The effects of bilingual education on the English language and literacy outcomes of Chinese-speaking children

To evaluate the effects of bilingual education on minority-language children’s English language and literacy outcomes, we compared grade 1 Chinese-speaking Canadian children enrolled in three different instructional programs (French Immersion, Chinese-English Paired Bilingual, English-only). ANCOVA results revealed that the French immersion children outperformed the other two groups on measures of English phonological awareness and word reading and that the bilingual groups were comparable to monolingual English norms on a test of receptive vocabulary. Multiple regression analyses were conducted to examine cross-language transfer of skills. French morphological awareness explained unique variance in English word reading and vocabulary for the French immersion group. For the other two groups, Chinese phonological awareness was significantly related to English word reading. Our results suggest that instruction in French or Chinese does not delay the development of early English language and literacy skills for Chinese-speaking children, as the children may be able to leverage skills from their other language to facilitate their English learning. Keywords: Bilingual education; French immersion; cross-language transfer

Impact of an Early Reading First program on the language and literacy achievement of children from diverse language backgrounds

This study used an age-cutoff regression discontinuity design to examine the impact of a well-resourced Early Reading First prekindergarten program designed to foster the language and literacy development of 4-year-old children from low-income homes. A special challenge for the application of the language-rich curriculum and professional development package implemented in this study was the presence of a large proportion of ELL children in essentially English-speaking classrooms. We, therefore, sought to determine whether the program was effective for improving English language and literacy outcomes for English-language learners as well as native English speakers. There were large and significant differences between treatment and control groups on literacy outcomes for all students. On the literacy tasks, ELL students in the treatment groups performed nearly as well or better than non-ELL students at the beginning of kindergarten, and reached national norms on standardized tests. There were also significant program impacts on some language outcomes for all students. ELL students who received the intervention significantly outperformed ELL students in the control groups on English receptive and expressive vocabulary. On the more complex oral comprehension skills, preschool did not have a significant impact for ELL students. Intervention effects on receptive vocabulary and oral comprehension for native speakers were found only for the third cohort and were not found for expressive vocabulary. These results provide evidence that, given material supports, coaching, professional development, and the use of a language and literacy-focused curriculum, prekindergarten classrooms can enable low-SES children from diverse language backgrounds to enter kindergarten with literacy skills at or near national norms and can significantly impact some language skills. While non-native speakers of English continued to score lower on language measures than their native-speaking peers, results show that 1 year of preschool can put all children on a positive trajectory for long-term success in school.

Rethinking English in Māori-medium education

English language instruction in New Zealand's Māori-medium schools is controversial, with many schools either excluding it from their curriculum or adopting a tokenistic approach. Yet, how Māori-medium educators can best support their students’ academic English language growth is still an under-researched and unresolved question. This paper reports on a project involving the English language transition programmes of three Māori-medium primary schools. Interviews and observations of key personnel within these schools revealed the components of their programmes, their perceptions of the need for English transition education and the issues they were facing in implementing English language instruction. The project found a direct relationship between levels of student language attainment and the quantity and quality of exposure to English instruction. Where an English programme occupied a significant place in a school's timetable and was staffed by teachers knowledgeable about the learning needs of bilingual students and how best to attend to these, the result was higher literacy scores and more satisfied students. This paper argues that planning English language outcomes for Māori-medium students is essential if becoming biliterate is an important aim. This planning must also be long-term, across all 13 years of the students’ education.

Second-first language acquisition: analysis of expressive language skills in a sample of girls adopted from China

In this study we investigated adopted Chinese girls' expressive English language outcomes in relation to their age at adoption, chronological age, length of exposure to English and developmental risk status at the time of adoption. Vocabulary and phrase utterance data on 318 girls were collected from the adoptive mothers using the Language Development Survey (LDS) (Achenbach & Rescorla, 2000). The girls, aged 18-35 months (M=26·2 months, SD=4·9 months), were adopted at ages ranging from 6·8 to 24 months (M=12·6 months, SD=3·1 months), and had been exposed to English for periods ranging from 1·6 to 27·6 months (M=13·7, SD=5·7). Findings suggest that vocabulary and mean length of phrase scores were negatively correlated with age at adoption but positively correlated with chronological age and length of exposure to English. Developmental risk status at the time of adoption was not correlated with language outcomes. The gap between their expressive language and that of same-age girls from the US normative sample was wider for children aged 18-23 months but was closed for children aged 30-35 months. About 16% of the children met the LDS criteria for delays in vocabulary and 17% met the LDS criteria for delays in mean length of phrase. Speech/language interventions were received by 33·3% of the children with delays in vocabulary and 25% with delays in phrase.

Research on academic literacy development in sheltered instruction classrooms

This article describes an extended program of research in sheltered instruction and the effects on the academic literacy development of English language learners. It also highlights the challenges of scaling up an instructional intervention. The intervention was the Sheltered Instruction Observation Protocol (SIOP) Model, an approach that teaches subject area curriculum to students learning through a second language using techniques that make the content material accessible and also help develop the students’ second language skills. Three successive studies looked at teacher change over time and student achievement on standardized assessments and researcher-developed measures. Results of the three studies reveal that students with teachers who were trained in the SIOP Model of sheltered instruction and implemented it with fidelity performed significantly better on assessments of academic language and literacy than students with teachers who were not trained in the model. The article offers guidance for strengthening professional development for teachers so the quality of instruction they deliver to English language learners improves and the students strengthen their English language and academic outcomes.

Language and verbal reasoning skills in adolescents with 10 or more years of cochlear implant experience.

The purpose of this study is to identify factors predictive of successful English language outcomes in adolescents who received a cochlear implant (CI) between 2 and 5 yrs of age. All 112 participants had been part of a previous study examining English language outcomes at the age of 8 and 9 yrs with CIs. The participants were given a battery of language and verbal reasoning tests in their preferred communication mode along with measures of working memory (digit span) and verbal rehearsal speed (sentence repetition duration). The degree to which students' language performance was enhanced when sign was added to spoken language was estimated at both test sessions. Multiple linear regression analyses were used to document factors contributing to overall language outcomes. A substantial proportion of the adolescents obtained test scores within or above 1SD compared with hearing age-mates in the tests' normative samples: 71% on a verbal intelligence test, 68% on a measure of language content, 71% on receptive vocabulary, and 74% on expressive vocabulary. Improvement in verbal intelligence scores over an 8-yr interval exceeded expectation based on age-mates in the test's normative sample. Better English language outcomes were associated with shorter duration of deafness before cochlear implantation, higher nonverbal intelligence, higher family socioeconomic status, longer digit spans, and faster verbal rehearsal speed as measured by sentence repetition rate. Students whose current receptive vocabulary scores were not enhanced by the addition of signs also exhibited higher English language scores than those without sign enhancement; however, sign enhancement demonstrated in the elementary school years was not predictive of later high-school language skills. Results of this study support the provision of CIs to children at the youngest age possible. In addition, it highlights the substantial role that cognition plays in later language outcomes. Although the students' use of sign to enhance language skills during the elementary years does not appear to have a negative impact on later language skills, students who continue to rely on sign to improve their vocabulary comprehension into high school typically exhibit poorer English language outcomes than students whose spoken language comprehension parallels or exceeds their comprehension of speech + sign. Overall, the language results obtained from these teenagers with more than 10 yrs of CI experience reflect substantial improvement over the verbal skills exhibited by adolescents with similar levels of hearing loss before the advent of CIs. These optimistic results were observed in teenagers who were among the first in the United States and Canada to receive a CI. We anticipate that the use of improved technology that is being initiated at even younger ages should lead to age-appropriate language levels in an even larger proportion of children with CIs.

Effective Early Literacy Skill Development for Young Spanish‐Speaking English Language Learners: An Experimental Study of Two Methods

Ninety-four Spanish-speaking preschoolers (M age = 54.51 months, SD = 4.72; 43 girls) were randomly assigned to receive the High/Scope Curriculum (control n = 32) or the Literacy Express Preschool Curriculum in English-only (n = 31) or initially in Spanish transitioning to English (n = 31). Children's emergent literacy skills were assessed before and after the intervention in Spanish and English. Children in the English-only and transitional groups made significant gains in their emergent literacy skills in both Spanish and English compared to the control group, The English-only and transitional models were equally effective for English language outcomes, but for Spanish-language outcomes, only the transitional model was effective. The results suggest that a targeted early literacy intervention can improve Spanish-speaking preschoolers' preliteracy skills.

The Relationship between the Outcome of Studies of Autologous Chondrocyte Implantation and the Presence of Commercial Funding

Background Autologous chondrocyte implantation (ACI) is an expensive treatment option for focal cartilage defects, and commercial funding of research is associated with a study reaching a positive conclusion. The purpose of this analysis is to compare outcomes (and levels of evidence) between published ACI outcome studies that were commercially funded and studies that were not commercially funded. Hypothesis Commercially funded ACI literature could be commercially biased. Study Design Comparative meta-analysis. Methods MEDLINE was searched for human, knee, ACI, nonmembrane, English language, and clinical outcome studies. Studies were evaluated with regard to funding status (commercially funded or not commercially funded), outcomes, and levels of evidence. Outcomes and levels of evidence were evaluated and compared for commercially funded studies versus those that were not commercially funded. Results Twenty-three studies were included; 16 (70%) were commercially funded. Pooled clinical outcome measures data were not significantly different (Lysholm, Modified Cincinnati, patient-reported Cincinnati, Tegner, pain Visual Analog Scale) when comparing commercially funded studies with those that were not commercially funded. However, distribution of levels of evidence was significantly lower (P = .045) for commercially funded studies. Conclusion Reassuringly, commercial funding of ACI studies did not result in a difference in published clinical outcomes versus those that were not commercially funded. However, the lower levels of evidence of commercially funded studies suggests that commercially funded ACI studies may be of less value to surgeons desiring to practice evidence-based medicine, and, in the future, commercial entities funding medical research could selectively fund studies of the highest levels of evidence.

Outcomes Research in Lung Cancer

Lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer death in the United States. Most therapeutic interventions for this disease achieve modest benefits, but at the expense of nontrivial toxicity and cost, making it an important area for outcomes analysis. The goal of the study was to audit the literature of outcomes pertaining to lung cancer. The English language outcomes literature published during the period from 1990 through 2000 was systematically reviewed and analyzed. Papers had to contain original research in one of the following areas: quality of life, health economics, communication, decision making, quality of care, or patient satisfaction. The literature was reviewed and analyzed by the author. The lung cancer outcomes literature is growing rapidly. Of the 199 studies examined, 106 (53%) dealt primarily with quality-of-life measurement, 69 (35%) examined costs, 11 (6%) dealt with communication and decision making, 11 (6%) assessed the quality of care, and two (1%) evaluated patient satisfaction. Most studies focused on the palliative phase of care. Women, the elderly, and minorities were generally well represented in these studies. The European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer QLQ-C30 with its LC13 module is emerging as the most commonly employed quality-of-life instrument in lung cancer studies. Economic studies vary widely in their quality. The literature is relatively sparse with respect to quality of care, communication, and decision making, however. A substantial body of outcomes research has been published since 1990. Further work is needed in the area of methods development, in the assessment of the impact of new technologies, and in the monitoring of the quality of lung cancer care in vulnerable populations.

INCIDENTAL VOCABULARY ACQUISITION IN THE FOREIGN LANGUAGE CLASSROOM

This paper is based on ongoing research on a recent low-dose, late partial English immersion (IM) program in Germany. The evaluation compares English language outcomes of IM groups, groups from non-IM schools, and non-IM groups from the same school as the IM groups, at various points of their development. This paper focuses on whether English vocabulary learning occurs incidentally while students are learning history or geography, or both, taught in English and whether there is evidence to suggest that the learning abilities activated in the IM classroom are the same as those found in traditional foreign language teaching and in naturalistic (untutored) L2 acquisition. The data derive from a communicative group test. It is shown that some of the lexical items cannot have come from the textbook or from other kinds of teaching materials used during regular foreign language instruction in the program. This leaves the teacher's oral use of English as the most likely source. Several implications for L2 acquisition theory and teaching practice are discussed.