British Agriculture Research Articles

End-of-life decision-making of dairy cattle and calves: A survey of British farmers and veterinary surgeons.

The study aim was to characterise issues faced by farmers and veterinary surgeons when making end-of-life decisions for dairy cattle. Online surveys were distributed to British dairy farmers and veterinary surgeons for 20weeks from November 2020. There were 83 responses (37 farmers, 46 veterinary surgeons). Among youngstock, the risk of unassisted/natural death (2.6% ± 0.3%) was almost double the risk of euthanasia (1.4% ± 0.3%; p = 0.003). The opposite, however, was true in the milking herd: the risk of euthanasia (2.3% ± 0.3%) was greater than unassisted/natural death (1.6% ± 0.2%; p = 0.05). A fallen stock collector (62%) typically performed euthanasia and most farms (66%) did not have anyone trained to perform euthanasia. Most deaths within the milking herd were attributed to 'unknown or not recorded' (median 15% of deaths). The factors that farmers most frequently reported as strongly influencing their decision of when to euthanase an animal relative to the onset of disease were 'failure to respond to treatment' (89%), 'veterinary advice' (89%) and 'severity of disease' (88%). On average, veterinarians had moderate or high confidence that 60% of dairy farm clients 'are performing euthanasia in a timely manner so as to prevent unnecessary suffering'. Veterinary surgeons had variable agreement on the time to euthanasia for various conditions. The survey highlighted end-of life decision-making successes and areas for improvement on dairy farms. An evidence-based, decision-support framework may help end-of-life decision-making, particularly for complex diseases.

Sown wildflowers between vines increase beneficial insect abundance and richness in a British vineyard

Abstract Traditional vineyards are generally intensive monocultures with high pesticide usage. Viticulture is one of the fastest‐growing sectors of English agriculture, although there is currently limited research on habitat management practices. In a vineyard in East Sussex, England, we tested five inter‐row ground cover treatments on their potential in supporting beneficial insects: two commercially available seed mixes (meadow mix and pollen and nectar mix), a wild bee seed mix (formulated based on pollinator foraging preferences), natural regeneration, and regularly mowed grass. Over two years, from May to August, we conducted monthly floral surveys and insect surveys using transect walks and pan traps. The abundance and richness of flowers in the natural regeneration treatment were twice that of the regularly mown inter‐row treatment. By year 2, the abundance of “total insects” sampled was significantly higher in the wild bee mix compared to mown. Likewise, there was a significant effect of treatment type on pollinator richness, with a higher mean richness found in wild bee mix. Solitary wasp family richness was highest in the natural regeneration treatment and lowest in the mown treatment. Given the rapid growth and lack of specific environmental recommendations for British viticulture, we demonstrate a simple and effective approach for supporting beneficial insects and ecosystem services. Promotion of perennial wildflowers through sowing or allowing natural regeneration in inter‐row ground cover in vineyards has the potential to boost biodiversity in vineyards on a large scale if widely adopted.

Multi-tier archetypes to characterise British landscapes, farmland and farming practices

Due to rising demand for both food and environmental services, agriculture is increasingly required to deliver multiple outcomes. Characterising differences, across agricultural landscapes, via the identification of broad archetypal groupings, is an important step in exploring spatial patterns in the capacity of land to deliver these potentially competing functions. Creating characterisations at multiple levels, for landscape and farm management, can allow policy-makers and land managers to harmonise delivery of ecosystem services at different intervention scales. This can identify ways to increase the complementarity of public goods and the sustainability of farmed landscapes. We used data-driven machine learning to create landscape and agricultural management archetypes (1 km resolution) at three levels, defined by opportunities for adaptation. Tier 1 archetypes quantify broad differences in soil, land cover and population across Great Britain, which cannot be readily influenced by the actions of land managers; Tier 2 archetypes capture more nuanced variations within farmland-dominated landscapes of Great Britain, over which land managers may have some degree of influence. Tier 3 archetypes are built at national levels for England and Wales and focus on socioeconomic and agro-ecological characteristics within farmland-dominated landscapes, characterising differences in farm management. By using a non-nested hierarchy, we identified which types of management are restricted to certain landscape settings, and which are applicable across multiple landscape contexts. Understanding variation within and between agricultural landscapes and farming practices has implications for planning environmental sustainability and food security. It can also aid understanding of the scale at which interventions could be most effective, from incentivising changes in farmer behaviour to policy drivers of large-scale land use change.

British dairy farmers’ management attitudes towards agricultural plastic waste: reduce, reuse, recycle

AbstractAgricultural plastic waste from nonpackaging polymers, such as those used in silage production, constitutes the majority of the UK's agricultural plastic waste due to inadequate management. This study included online and telephone interviews with 12 British dairy farmers (nine from England, three from Wales) to understand the use of non‐packaging plastic in silage production on British dairy farms. It examined their current silage production techniques and agricultural plastic waste management behaviours and highlighted the challenges of reducing plastic waste on dairy farms through the lens of circular economy. The findings show that UK dairy farmers have adhered to the mantra of reduce, reuse and recycle. They use silage clamps for high volumes of silage production, try to reuse some used silage sheets and express a strong interest in having their waste plastic collected and recycled. However, the lack of effective agricultural plastic waste collection services, inequitable enforcement of plastic waste management regulations and rising costs of waste plastic collection in the UK make it difficult for them to recycle effectively. © 2022 The Author. Polymer International published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Industrial Chemistry.

The relationship between on-farm environmental conditions inside and outside cow sheds during the summer in England: can Temperature Humidity Index be predicted from outside conditions?

Heat stress is a growing problem in dairy cows, and interest is developing in calculating heat stress risk (Temperature Humidity Index – THI) without using specific farm data and in forecasting THI changes a few days in advance. Previous workers have shown that calculating THI values inside cattle sheds using data from local Meteorological Stations is not sufficiently accurate. Weather forecasting is becoming more local and can forecast on-farm temperature and humidity. This work looked at how well THI inside a cow shed could be predicted from data collected outside the cow shed on British farms. Six farms were monitored from 1 May 2021 to 30 Sept 2021 using bespoke data monitors that uploaded the data to the cloud in real time through the cellular network. Calculated THI values for inside and outside the cow shed were highly correlated (P < 0.001), and a regression predicting THI inside the shed from the THI outside the shed was highly significant (P < 0.001). However, farm-specific regressions had significantly different regression intercepts. Including calving pattern type (autumn or all year round) and calendar month separately or together improved the regression. The 95% confidence interval (CI) of the prediction was 10.8 THI units for the simple one-component model (THIoutside) and 7.8 for the three-component model (THIoutside, calendar month, calving pattern type). Farm-specific regressions had the lowest CI values suggesting there are farm-specific factors affecting THI that had not been captured. As a predictive model, the simple single component regression would be the most applicable but the relatively high CI means that predictions will not be that accurate with the risk of heat stress either under- or overemphasised on different farms. With one THI unit equating to approximately a 200 ml drop in milk yield in heat-stressed cows, such errors will be of biological and commercial significance. This in part may be due to the THI equation only considering temperature and humidity and ignoring solar radiation, shade, wind and animal factors such as milk yield, stage of pregnancy, weight and genetic variability. Further work is underway to develop an index that quantifies how the cow is responding to the combined heat-loading factors which may improve the prediction of heat stress.

Piling behaviour in British layer flocks: Observations and farmers` experiences

Smothering of laying hens, defined as death due to suffocation when hens tightly pile together in layer barns, is a well-known problem affecting the British loose-housed layer industry. However, knowledge about mechanisms contributing to piling in British layer flocks remains anecdotal. To understand piling behaviour mechanisms, the behaviour of 27 British loosed-house layer flocks from two farmer organisations (four brown hybrids, twenty large barns with a flock size of median ± SD, 10 175 ± 5721 birds, and seven small mobile barns, flock size: 2000 ± 0 birds) with a history of piling behaviour was observed. Video observations were taken along walls and in the centre of the floor area of the layer barns. The number of piles, pile sizes, pile durations, events preceding piles, and locations where piles started (wall/floor area) were described for one day (08:30–16:00 h) at three times of day (0–4 h, >4–8 h, >8–12 h after lights on) either around 20 weeks or around 30 weeks of flock age. Events preceding piling were analysed using descriptive statistics. The effects of time of day, flock age, laying hen hybrid, the area where piles started, and colony size on the number of piling events, pile sizes, and pile durations were assessed using univariate analysis and linear or generalised linear mixed-effects models in R. In addition, twelve British farmers, a subset of the investigated farms, were interviewed about their experiences with piling and smothering. Interviews were audio-recorded, transcribed, and analysed using qualitative content analysis. In total, 92 piles were detected in the videos, lasting on average 21.9 ± 29.3 min and involving 25 ± 39 hens. Piles were mostly preceded by the attraction of hens to other hen behaviours (63.0%) and bird movements through high animal densities on the floor area (23.0%). Piles occurred significantly more frequently at > 4–8 h compared to > 8–12 h and 0–4 h after lights on. Pile sizes were larger in the floor area centre than along walls and positively correlated with pile durations and the flock sizes. Interview analysis revealed that farmers considered multiple events to be triggers for piling and smothering, including the transfer from the rearing to the laying environment, flight responses, broken routines, gregarious nesting in nests or on the floor area, and other gregarious behaviours such as dustbathing in the centre of the floor area. They reported that the causes of piling and smothering change throughout the flock cycle and time of day.

A food revolution – cultivated meat

A food revolution – cultivated meat

Piling on the pressure: Crime and stress in British farming

Farmers in Britain face a range of stressors – events that negatively affect wellbeing – that impact on their ability to manage their business successfully. Extant research has identified stressors such as weather, finance, regulation, staffing and time pressures. However, no research has examined how agricultural crime affects the mental health of farmers. This article is the first to explore whether agricultural crime should be considered as a farmer stressor, and how this compares to the impact of other, more widely acknowledged farmer stressors on the day-to-day running of a farm in Britain. An online survey was employed to reach farmers across Britain to obtain quantitative data, but also qualitative data relating to stressors. Results in this first tranche of data indicate that agricultural crime has a clear place in the list of farmer stressors, with only weather, finance and time pressures being reported more often as a top three stressor by participants. The article concludes that there is a clear research gap regarding crime as a farmer stressor. It is argued that the findings of this research support the need for a wider discussion among key stakeholders to examine how agricultural crime is impacting upon the viability of British farms, and to ensure that agricultural crime is considered as a key farmer stressor so that its effects can be better addressed alongside other stressors.

“To Multiply Corn Two-Hundred-Fold”

Abstract Agricultural reform movements proliferated in seventeenth-century Europe. For many who sought to make farming more economically productive, the practices of chymistry offered a way to accomplish these goals. Placed in the context of the development of a “vegetable philosophy,” or a theory of generation and growth across mineralogical and botanical domains, this article examines the application of chymical techniques in the attempt to enhance wheat seeds through seed-steeping and “fructifying” experiments among seventeenth-century agricultural reformers, particularly in England. I focus on three main sources: instructional husbandry manuals describing how to create “fructifying waters” to fertilize these seeds, the writings of Hugh Plat and Francis Bacon detailing their experiments on wheat seed germination, and the manuscript notebooks and correspondences of the Hartlib Circle, a group of natural philosophers, alchemists, and agricultural reformers who attempted to put these ideas into practice in the 1640s and 1650s. Their attempt to develop an artificial fertilizer regime for important cereal crops like wheat played a small but crucial role in the origins of the British Agricultural Revolution in the seventeenth century.

Back to the Future: Farming Systems in Transition

National policy levers play a central role in shaping agricultural systems. In his timely book Land Renewed: reworking the Countryside Peter Hetherington (2021) challenges British policy makers to form a far more coherent approach for land use supporting the transition towards improved national food security, seen through a lens of climate change and biodiversity loss. In the UK there are currently three separate government departments responsible for land, the environment, farming and climate change complicating policy alignment. He points out that without subsidies, in the form of area payments, over 60% of all British farms would be running at a loss. The challenge is to improve domestic crop production which currently provides just 60% of the nation's food (Lang, 2020) and hence make the food system more resilient to shocks in international food supply chains while addressing the climate emergency. Hetherington documents a number of cases where farmers, collaborating in organisations such as the Nature Friendly Farming Network, are successfully encouraging a resurgence of bird-life through reduced tillage, renewing and planting hedgerows and using lower doses of fertilisers, including on larger holdings with over 500 ha. This is perhaps the other side of the coin of the bleak future for biodiversity associated with major broad-acre crops outlined by Dewar (2021) in these pages. However, Hetherington (2021) points out that just under half of England's farms produce 2% of total agricultural output, while 8% of them account for over half of it. This implies room for landscape scale nature-friendly farming and even re-wilding, particularly in the uplands, with the caveat that local communities play a central role in plans and implementation. With heightened public interest in the climate emergency and biodiversity loss there is increasing desire for food which is local and particularly in food traceability. This is leading to increasingly sophisticated methods to track and publish farming and animal welfare standards with supermarket chains requiring producers to adhere to these (e.g., Waitrose and Partners, 2022 one of many examples). Underpinning such standards, methods of carbon accounting which may be applied to soil, whole farms or individual enterprises within the farm have been a focus of research for some time (e.g. Goglio et. al. 2015; Abram, 2020). At the most basic level regular soil organic matter tests and a soil management plan will allow British farmers signed up to the entry level of the recently announced Sustainable Farming Incentive (DEFRA, 2022) to be "paid with public funds for providing public goods". To receive payment, they will also be required to ensure 70% of the farm has a green cover through the winter from December to February and add organic matter, which can be via a green cover crop, on one third of the land each year. Currently there is no requirement to demonstrate that soil organic matter is increasing over time – this is assumed. As time goes on however it is possible to envisage more nuanced payments for increasing stored soil carbon, and even a "market" developing as is the case with woodland creation (Forestry Commission, 2022) as producers become the "carbon farmers" of tomorrow as suggested by Korres &amp; Dayan (2020). External inputs including crop protection products will all be included in farm or enterprise carbon budgets. Policy levers are also a focus to regulate the quantity of agrochemicals used for crop protection. The European Union's "Farm to Fork" and Biodiversity strategies, aim reduce by 50% the use and potential risk of chemical pesticides by 2030 and reduce by 50% the use of the more hazardous pesticides also by 2030, although a recent assessment indicates slow and uneven progress towards targets and adoption of IPM measures (European Commission, 2020). Individual countries also take unilateral measures as seen with restrictions on use and in some cases phasing out of the use of glyphosate e.g. by 2024 in Germany (Sustainable Pulse, 2022). Glyphosate is a widely used tool for the destruction of green cover crops (e.g. Fogliato, 2020) so alternative approaches will be needed where these are used at scale as part of interventions to build soil health and store carbon.

‘We're out, so wtf do we do now?’: Brexit and rural identity in the era of online agricultural communities

AbstractThis article explores online interactions between members of the UK farming community in the context of Brexit, a moment of great friction within British agriculture. A ‘netnography’ was conducted of thefarmingforum.co.uk, a British‐based discussion group with a large membership, covering a range of aspects from farming practices to trade and relationships. Findings reveal how the online space challenges and connects notions of rural space and place. A displaced identity, unmoored from traditional farming attributes such as land and locality, becomes both a driving force for participation and a tool for political control. The article sheds light on the under‐appreciated political power of such online groups enabled through under‐researched digital technologies. The farmer‐owned forum represents the ‘other voice’ within corporate‐led agricultural innovation; however, the onset of Brexit became a catalyst for extreme politics, facilitating a populist swing towards the Leave campaign and revealing a visceral distrust for institutions.

The effect of environmental temperature on average daily gain in preweaned calves: A randomized controlled trial and Bayesian analysis

Neonatal calves are relatively susceptible to heat loss, and previous research suggests that reduced environmental temperatures are associated with reduced average daily gain (ADG) during the preweaning phase. Current methods of mitigating negative effects of colder environmental conditions include the use of calf jackets and the provision of supplementary heat sources; however, previous research is limited. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of calf jackets and 1-kW heat lamps on the growth rates of preweaning calves and evaluate associations between environmental temperature and ADG using a Bayesian approach to incorporate both current and previous data. Seventy-nine calves from a single British dairy farm were randomly allocated at birth to 1 of the following 4 groups: no jacket and no heat lamp, heat lamp but no jacket, jacket but no heat lamp, or both heat lamp and jacket between January and April of 2021. Calves were weighed at both birth and at approximately 21 d of age. Temperature was recorded both inside and outside of the calf building, and in pens both with and without heat lamps using data loggers. To explore the effect of treatment group and environmental temperature on ADG, a fixed effects model was fitted over 1,000 bootstrap samples. The effect of environmental temperature on ADG was further explored within a Bayesian framework that used temperature and ADG data for 484 calves from 16 farms available from a previous trial as prior information. Calves housed under a 1-kW heat lamp had an increased ADG of 0.09 kg/d (95% bootstrap confidence interval: -0.02 to 0.20 kg/d), and no effect of jacket or interactions between jacket and heat lamp were found. A significant positive association was identified between the mean environmental temperature of the calf building and ADG, with a 1°C increase in temperature being associated with a 0.03 kg/d increase in ADG (95% bootstrap confidence interval: 0.01 to 0.04 kg/d). Associations between environmental temperature and ADG were further evaluated within a Bayesian framework, and posterior estimates were 0.014 kg/d of ADG per 1°C increase (95% credible interval: 0.009 to 0.021 kg/d). This study demonstrated that a 1-kW heat lamp was effective in increasing ADG in calves, and no significant effect of calf jacket on ADG was found. A significant, positive effect of increased pen temperature on calf ADG was identified in this study and was reinforced when including prior information from previous research within a Bayesian framework.

The Material Fall of Roman Britain, 300–525 CE By Robin Fleming. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press 2021. Pp. 303. $45. ISBN 978-0-8122-5244-6 (cloth).

<i>The Material Fall of Roman Britain, 300–525 CE</i> By Robin Fleming. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press 2021. Pp. 303. $45. ISBN 978-0-8122-5244-6 (cloth).

Turning DDT into ‘Didimac’: Making insecticide products and consumers in British farming after 1945

ABSTRACT This paper examines the adoption of DDT and other insecticides in British farming after 1945 to consider the notion that new synthetic insecticides were taken up rapidly. It shows that the uptake of chemical insecticides during the 1940s and 1950s was slower in many agricultural sectors than accounts have often suggested, and slower than the uptake of other agrochemicals, such as herbicides. Importantly, this paper shows that the extent of use before 1965 varied a great deal according to crop or farming sector and also according to the type of insecticide product. Historians have not sufficiently engaged with the fact that farmers did not purchase the raw chemicals, DDT or BHC, they bought insecticide products – a diverse range of formulations for spraying, dusting or the treatment of seeds. This paper shows how the adoption of insecticidal products on a large scale in the post-war period resulted from various types of work by business and government. The very close relationship between state and business gained its legitimacy from its location in a historical moment in which greater output and efficiency in farming had become a national goal.

Pathways, targets and temporalities: Analysing English agriculture's net zero futures

Net zero emissions targets are of growing international relevance given their increasing uptake by governments across the world. This article analyses net zero targets as a distinctly future-oriented approach to environmental governance. It does so from a critical perspective, examining whether net zero targets serve to reproduce the existing temporalities of environmental policymaking or whether they represent a break with current practices and, in turn, develop new temporalities and novel ways of engaging with the future. In order to do this, this article focuses on efforts to reduce agricultural emissions in England to net zero. In 2019 the United Kingdom introduced legislation requiring a reduction of greenhouse gas emissions to net zero by 2050. This, in turn, has encouraged actors in the food system to produce various imagined pathways to net-zero agriculture. This article critically analyses how these imagined pathways are discursively produced by influential actors within this sphere through a critical discourse analysis of recent grey literature produced by Defra, the Climate Change Committee and the National Farmers’ Union. It asserts that, to an extent, the net zero and target oriented approaches enshrined in current environmental policymaking represent the ongoing reproduction of both an ‘empty’ modernist future with some post-political dimensions. This assessment is, however, nuanced by recognising the tensions that emerge within and between the state and non-state institutions producing these discourses. Ultimately, however, the net zero transition draws actors together around a techno-optimistic vision of an agricultural future defined by sustainable intensification and negative emissions technologies. In doing so, it serves to suppress calls for transformative change in agriculture based on social as well as material change.

Schoenberger, Melissa. Cultivating Peace: The Virgilian Georgic in English, 1650–1750.

Schoenberger, Melissa. <i>Cultivating Peace: The Virgilian Georgic in English, 1650–1750</i>.

Improving growth rates in preweaning calves on dairy farms: A randomized controlled trial

Previous research has identified key factors associated with improved average daily gain (ADG) in preweaning dairy calves and these factors have been combined to create a web app-based calf health plan (www.nottingham.ac.uk/herdhealthtoolkit). A randomized controlled trial was conducted to determine the effect of implementing this evidence-based calf health plan on both productivity and health outcomes for calves reared on British dairy farms. Sixty dairy farms were randomized by location (North, South, and Midlands) to either receive the plan at the beginning (INT) or after the end of the trial (CON) and recorded birth and weaning weights by weigh tape, and cases of morbidity and mortality. Calf records were returned for 3,593 calves from 45 farms (21 CON, 24 INT), with 1,760 calves from 43 farms having 2 weights recorded >40 d apart for ADG calculations, with 1,871 calves from 43 farms born >90 d before the end of the trial for morbidity and mortality calculations. Associations between both intervention group and the number of interventions in place with ADG were analyzed using linear regression models. Morbidity and mortality rates were analyzed using beta regression models. Mean ADG was 0.78 kg/d, ranging from 0.33 to 1.13 kg/d, with mean rates of 20.12% (0-96.55%), 16.40% (0-95.24%), and 4.28% (0-18.75%) for diarrhea, pneumonia, and mortality. The INT farms were undertaking a greater number of interventions (9.9) by the end of the trial than CON farms (7.6). Mean farm ADG was higher for calves on INT farms than CON farms for both male beef (MB, +0.22 kg/d) and dairy heifer (DH, +0.03 kg/d) calves. The MB calves on INT farms had significantly increased mean ADG (0.12 kg/d, 95% confidence interval: 0.02-0.22) compared with CON farms. No significant differences were observed between intervention groups for morbidity or mortality. Implementing one additional intervention from the plan, regardless of intervention group, was associated with improvements in mean ADG for DH calves of 0.01 kg/d (0.01, 0-0.03) and MB calves of 0.02 kg/d (0.00-0.04). Model predictions suggest that a farm with the highest number of interventions in place (15) compared with farms with the lowest number of interventions in place (4) would expect an improvement in growth rates from 0.65 to 0.81 kg/d for MB, from 0.73 to 0.88 kg/d for DH, a decrease in mortality rates from 10.9% to 2.8% in MB, and a decrease in diarrhea rates from 42.1% to 15.1% in DH. The calf health plan tested in this study represents a useful tool to aid veterinarians and farmers in the implementation of effective management interventions likely to improve the growth rates, health, and welfare of preweaning calves on dairy farms.

Conducting Online Crime and Safety Surveys with British Farmers

Rural crime continues to be an under-represented area of academia. As a result, much of the methodological guidance tends to stem from health or rural development research, providing general guidance, but lacking the specific considerations of conducting crime and safety research in a rural environment. However, the impact of COVID-19 has led to a wider consideration of online surveys, particularly in rural communities. This paper provides guidance on conducting online crime and safety surveys with the farming community based on the extensive experience of the author in the field of rural criminology. Methodological considerations will be addressed that distinguish rural online crime and safety surveying from its urban counterpart, and the advantages and disadvantages of this methodology will be discussed. The aim being to guide the rural criminological researcher in the use of online surveys to obtain key data from the farming community to support and extend their research.

"Rusticall chymistry": Alchemy, saltpeter projects, and experimental fertilizers in seventeenth-century English agriculture.

As the primary ingredient in gunpowder, saltpeter was an extraordinarily important commodity in the early modern world. Historians of science and technology have long studied its military applications but have rarely focused on its uses outside of warfare. Due to its potential effectiveness as a fertilizer, saltpeter was also an integral component of experimental agricultural reform movements in the early modern period and particularly in seventeenth-century England. This became possible for several reasons: the creation of a thriving domestic saltpeter production industry in the second half of the sixteenth century; the development of vitalist alchemical theories that sought a unified explanation for the "growth" of minerals, metals, and plants; the rise of experimental natural philosophy; and the mid-seventeenth-century dominance of the English East India Company in the saltpeter trade, which allowed agricultural reformers to repurpose domestically produced saltpeter in agriculturally productive ways. This paper argues that the Hartlib Circle - a loose network of natural philosophers and social reformers - adopted vitalist matter theories and the practical, experimental techniques of alchemists to transform agriculture into a more productive enterprise. Though their grandiose plans never came to fruition, their experimental trials to develop artificial fertilizers played an early role in the origins and development of saline chemistry, agronomy, and the British Agricultural Revolution.

Professor H. Gutfreund, FRS (21 October 1921 to 21 March 2021)

Professor H. Gutfreund, FRS (21 October 1921 to 21 March 2021)