English As A Native Language Research Articles

Exploring variation in English as a lingua franca: Multivariate analysis of modal verbs of obligation and necessity in the VOICE corpus

Abstract The modal verbs of necessity and obligation, a testing ground of grammatical change, have been shown to exhibit change and variation in world Englishes. Previous studies have primarily concentrated on English as a native language (ENL) and English as a second language (ESL) varieties. The present study extends this line of research and explores variation in modal verbs of necessity and obligation in English use as a Lingua Franca (ELF). Descriptive statistics indicate that ELF resembles American English and also shares similarities with ESL varieties. In addition, ELF further exhibits divergence from both ENL and ESL varieties that arises in multilingual interactions. The multivariate analysis of this study employs mixed-effects logistic regression on the use of must and have to. Integrating social and linguistic factors, this analysis exploits metadata gathered from the VOICE corpus, which has thus far been underused. The results of the inferential statistics indicate that the same sociolinguistic factors that influence the variation in ENL and ESL varieties also shape ELF grammar. These findings not only bring ELF closer to other English varieties but also demonstrate the advantage of studying ELF from a variationist sociolinguistic perspective.

A Sociological Lens on Linguistic Diversity: Implications for Writing Inclusive Multiple-Choice Assessments

Multiple-choice questions (MCQs) are widely used in large introductory courses. Recent research focuses on MCQ reliability and validity and overlooks questions of accessibility. Yet, access to the norms of academic discourse embedded in MCQs differs between groups of first-year students. We theorize these norms as part of the institutionalized cultural symbols that reproduce social and cultural exclusion for linguistically diverse students. A sociological focus on linguistic diversity is necessary as the percentage of students who use English as an additional language (EAL), rather than English as a native language (ENL), has grown. Drawing on sociology as pedagogy, we problematize MCQs as a medium shaping linguistically diverse students’ ability to demonstrate disciplinary knowledge. Our multimethod research uses two-stage randomized exams and focus groups with EAL and ENL students to assess the effects of a modification in instructors’ MCQ writing practices in sociology and psychology courses. Findings show that students are more likely to answer a modified MCQ correctly, with greater improvement for EAL students.

From learners to users—errors, innovations, and universals

Abstract This paper looks into the dilemma of what counts as a grammatical ‘learner error’ in ELT on the basis of recent results from English variationist research and English as a lingua franca research. Examples from these studies show that features often perceived as ‘errors’ for EFL speakers also occur in ESL production—where they are called ‘innovations’—and even in English as a native language (ENL) production—where the term ‘spoken language universal’ would seem more appropriate. It is proposed that the traditional categorization of English speakers into EFL, ESL, and ENL actually hinders us from seeing the linguistic realities of the English-speaking world, disfavouring EFL speakers in particular. The paper calls for ELT to see EFL speakers as users of the language rather than learners in order to acknowledge their grammatical creativity as similar to that of other speakers of English.

Analysis of Rhetorical Appeals to Logos, Ethos and Pathos in ENL and ESL Research Abstracts

Based on Connor’s (1996) Contrastive Theory of Rhetoric, this study investigated the degree of the rhetorical appeals and their rhetorical devices in the English as a Native Language (ENL) and English as a Second Language (ESL) research abstract (RAs) from indexed journals. A mapping and selection table of rhetorical devices was introduced based on Aristotelian three elements in rhetoric to produce an effective discourse: i) three rhetorical appeals, ii) topoi, and iii) arrangement of text (Aristotle & Kennedy, 1991). The rhetorical model is also integrated with LIWC2015 psycholinguistic dimensions (Pennebaker, et al., 2015) and Compositionality Model (Bulté & Housen, 2018). The first Aristotelian element refers to three rhetorical appeals to logos, ethos, and pathos which were measured by three LIWC2015 summary variables of analytical thinking, clout and emotional tone respectively. Three rhetorical devices were identified at lexical-phrasal, sentential, and textual level for each rhetorical appeal which fulfilled the other two Aristotelian elements. In total, three summary domains with nine rhetorical devices were analysed in 480 RAs with LIWC2015 software and Readable.com online application. It was found that there are significant correlations among three rhetorical devices identified for each rhetorical appeal to logos, ethos, and pathos. Contrastive analysis revealed that ESL RAs were more rhetorically appealing to logos and pathos than ENL RAs. However, both groups of RAs did not show any significant difference in terms of their appeal to ethos. Finally, research implications and future research directions are also discussed.

Labels and Realities: The Relevance of Terms like ESL and EFL in a Linguistically Complex World

For a long time, ELT (‘English language teaching’) scholars and practitioners have used terms like ‘ESL’ (‘English as a second language’) and ‘EFL’ (‘English as a foreign language’) unquestioningly to describe the English used by people outside the so-called ENL (‘English as a native language’) circle. For example, ELT practitioners may conveniently refer to students from places like China, Vietnam and Thailand as EFL students. Interestingly, we find counterparts of such terms in ‘World Englishes’ studies; Braj Kachru’s ‘Inner Circle English’, ‘Outer Circle English’ and ‘Expanding Circle English’ essentially refer to ENL ESL and EFL respectively. Despite the popularity of such terms in scholarly circles, the problems associated with their use have not often been explored in depth. Nevertheless, some authors have described such problems. For example, commenting on the distinction between ESL and EFL, Nayar (1997, p. 10) states, “a great deal of referential fuzziness within the two and denotative overlap between the two are making the terminological distinctions unclear, impractical, and ineffective or, worse still, in some cases inauspicious and irrelevant.” This special issue aims to further examine the use and relevance of these terms.

“How Is My English?”: Chinese University Students’ Attitudes Toward China English and Their Identity Construction

Due to the spread of the English language in various domains and the fact that English is used as a global language, researchers and educators have started to rethink the models and aims of English language teaching in different settings. From the World Englishes (WE) perspective, this study investigated the attitudes of Chinese university students toward the localized variety of “China English,” as well as the students’ identity construction and negotiation during their English language learning journey. Data were collected through a questionnaire completed by 190 respondents and interviews conducted with 20 participants. The findings revealed the students’ positive attitudes toward China English and non-conformity to English as a native language (ENL). This further reflected the communicative function of English and the students’ interest in forming a Chinese cultural identity. However, the students also showed self-contradictory attitudes toward China English, as most did not want to be clearly identified as Chinese when using English. The data revealed some important reasons for this attitudinal conflict, including the belief that ENL is the standard form of English, as well as the students’ desire to develop an identity as competent second language learners of English. The findings suggest the importance of increasing awareness of the global spread of English and reforming English curricula and assessment in contexts where local varieties of English are emerging.

A study of cognitive-experiential practices for promoting ELF communicative competence in Italian ELT classrooms

The increasing use of English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) calls for substantial changes in the English Language Teaching (ELT) pedagogy both in Italy and elsewhere. This chapter illustrates an ongoing research project aimed to explore the dynamics of ELF discourse in the educational domain, and ultimately, to devise guidelines for developing cognitive-experiential practices that enhance ELF communicative competence in ELT classrooms. The study investigates ELF communicative strategies through naturally occurring discussions in which school-age learners – ELF users – talk about a challenging topic under unconstrained conditions, namely without the supervision of their English teacher and without English as a Native Language (ENL) requirements. This experimental activity was performed by observing and audio recording natural spoken ELF interactions among Italian students and students of ten different nationalities participating in intercultural exchange programmes in three upper-secondary schools. The qualitative data analysis is conducted within a conversation analytic framework by means of a protocol based on conversational moves. It focuses on the cooperative practices that school-age ELF users enact to achieve effective communication. The analysis reveals that participants (i) generally orient to their interlocutors, employing pragmatic strategies that are commonly used in ELF communication, and (ii) implement languaging and interactional skills that show their authentic involvement in the spoken activity as it was designed. These findings demonstrate that school-age ELF users put into play their language resources, but also themselves as individuals with their own identity, cultural background and experiences. The results of this study may be translated into teaching practices that enhance ELF-mediated communication, promoting language and intercultural awareness

Toward ELF-Informed Bilingual Education in Taiwan: Addressing Incongruity Between Policy and Practice

In 2018, Taiwan’s Ministry of Education (MOE) announced the national bilingual education (BE) policy and its commitment toward implementing full-scale bilingualization in the national education system. Though the details for putting the policy into practice at local contexts across the nation are still under discussion, small-scale experiments had been conducted by individual schools in different cities prior to the MOE announcement. One unique case was the CLIL pilot program fully organized and supported by Tainan City government, launched 1 year ahead of the national policy. This paper discusses the experience in Tainan CLIL program from three aspects: the medium of instruction, foreign teacher recruitment, and the needs of bilingual teacher education. The findings will help inform the national policy as MOE formulates more specific implementation guidelines. In comparing the Tainan pilot experience and MOE’s policy, the study will show that the MOE policy was influenced by the traditional English as a native language (ENL) ideologies, even though in many parts of the world educators have adopted the English as a lingua franca (ELF) framework in curriculum design. A BE program with ELF perspectives will not only integrate multicultural awareness in curriculum design, but also value teachers’ and students’ multilingual resources in teaching and learning in the classroom. An ELF-informed BE policy will view local teachers’ empowerment as a crucial step to successful CLIL implementation. In light of our findings, the MOE’s bilingual education policies should be examined and updated with awareness of the ELF phenomenon and the experience of Tainan’s CLIL pilot program

Reflections of Vietnamese English Language Educators on Their Writer Identities in English and Vietnamese

ABSTRACT In today’s globalised world, options have increased for how people write. Individuals who write in an additional language draw on their varied language learning experiences, their study and travel abroad, as well as their interactions with colleagues and friends in the institutions in which they work. While some features of texts produced in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) contexts may initially appear to be simple appropriations of English as a Native Language (ENL) features, deeper investigations into how writers report on their writing practices reveal richer and more complex perceptions of the writer's self. In this article, we explore how Vietnamese English language educators report on their own writing and how they teach others to write in order to show the complex and diverse ways in which these Vietnamese educators view their English and Vietnamese academic writing practices and enact their writer identities.

Quantifying the impact of language on the performance of international accounting students: A cognitive load theory perspective

This study offers timely empirical evidence of the magnitude of the language effect on the performance of different language user groups, namely English as a Foreign Language (EFL), English as a Second Language (ESL), and English as a Native Language (ENL) in an accounting program instructed in English, an area that has been under researched. Informed by Cognitive Load Theory (CLT), this study develops an innovative research methodology (crossover repeated measures design), drawing on a large data analysis (n = 2912) of students' academic results in six accounting specialisation subjects between 2007 and 2014 in an Australian university's undergraduate accounting program. Results show that while all language user groups perform worse in more conceptually (MC) oriented subjects compared to less conceptually (LC) oriented subjects, the relative performance between MC and LC is strongly related to English language user groups. For the first time the magnitude of the impact is derived. The study has implications for the instructional design of accounting programs in English-speaking universities and their offshore programs in non-English speaking countries.

English as a native language, World Englishes and English as a lingua franca-informed materials: acceptance, perceptions and attitudes of Chinese English learners

ABSTRACTThis article aims to explore whether well-attested findings of World Englishes (WE) and English as a lingua franca (ELF) research have been included in Chinese English language teaching (ELT) materials and how Chinese English learners perceive English as a native language (ENL), WE and ELF-informed materials. The study was carried in the Chinese Business English Program. Results from questionnaires and interviews suggest that: there is no significant move to include linguistic and cultural diversity; ENL-informed materials are perceived as essential while WE-informed materials are perceived as necessary only at the advanced level; the current materials include inauthentic ELF scenarios, which might provide misleading information to English learners; and native cultures, non-native cultures and learners’shome culture are recommended to be included in ELT materials. In the light of these findings, suggestions for the design and use of ELT materials in the Chinese context are offered.

Preparing EFL Students for University EMI Programs: The Hidden Challenge

This chapter discusses the specific challenges faced by Icelandic students trained in traditional English as a Foreign Language (EFL) when they enter university programs that are partially or entirely taught in English (English as a Medium of Instruction, EMI). This includes the measures taken by the Department of English to meet English majors’ and non-English majors’ growing demand for academic English support. The lack of academic English skills of Icelandic students is a “hidden challenge” (Ingvarsdóttir and Arnbjörnsdóttir, 2014) caused by an overconfident perception of students’ English proficiency by University officials and by the students themselves. The goal of the Department of English is to bring students quickly to a level of academic English that allows them to access curriculum and instruction where ENL (English as a Native Language) norms are expected. As the identified challenges differ from those encountered in students’ previous EFL dominated environment with minimal writing experience, there is a critical need to adapt teaching and learning practices to a new linguistic context where English functions as an additional language. The article concludes with a description of a new intensive instructional approach that targets identified English academic literacy needs of students entering the University of Iceland. The foundation of the new approach is that all students can acquire skills in organizing ideas and composing clear and effective text in English across all genres. The approach accomplishes this by developing awareness of English writing conventions, knowledge about which strategies to employ and when to employ them, revision skills and the persistence to rewrite until the text authentically reflects the views of the author. The idea is that through writing, students also gain an awareness of the nature of English academic texts and thereby hone their reading skills.

L’inglese lingua franca come strumento di marketing nel commercio internazionale

Abstract – The English language as an international language has become a key element of communication in the international trade of products and services of all types. This is because all small, medium and large companies are facing an increasingly globalized world with all the competition that this involves both in the domestic and export market. While quality of the product or service remains a key factor, the ability to communicate in a globalised world can mean the difference between struggling to survive and expanding. In particular, the use of English in the Apulia region is of paramount importance for economic development, especially in the markets for traditional agro-food products (e.g. wine, olive oil or dairy products) and for attracting tourists on the national, European and extra-European levels: areas where English has almost become a second language. In this chapter, we will examine how ELF is used in conjunction with the more traditional English as a native language (ENL) in marketing, focusing on a case study of the scope of wine descriptions produced by two well-known Apulian wine producers. Before reporting on our analysis, we will briefly discuss Christiansen’s (2016) typology of the various forms of English used in international business circles and discuss the general factors that are to be considered before adopting one type of English rather than another in the context of various international marketing.

Stability and Fluidity in Syntactic Variation World-Wide

What are the scope and limits of syntactic variation within and across varieties of English? To address this question, we investigate well-known syntactic variation between the s-genitive ( Mr Barnsley’s management) and the of-genitive ( the management of Mr Barnsley) in nine varieties of English. We specifically gauge the stability of constraints on this variation by analyzing a richly annotated dataset spanning 10,558 interchangeable genitives from nine components of the International Corpus of English. Regression modeling indicates that constraints such as possessor animacy, constituent length, final sibilancy of the possessor, as well as the effect of medium (spoken vs. written) as a language-external factor differ in strength across varieties. The language-internal constraints, however, never change effect direction. We conclude that the probabilistic grammar fueling genitive variation is surprisingly stable overall, but does exhibit some fluidity along the lines of a distinction between English as a native language (ENL) and English as a second language (ESL) varieties: those constraints that tend to favor s-genitive usage tend to be weakened in ESL varieties.

The use of the be-passive in academic Englishes: local versus global usage in an international language

In this paper, we examine the diffusion of a syntactic change in a specialised text type in different World Englishes – in particular, the use of be-passives in academic discourse in nine contact varieties of English and six English as a Native Language (ENL) varieties. The Zürich-parsed International Corpus of English (ICE) makes it possible to retrieve automatically, for the first time, the two variants in the envelope of variation: active transitive constructions and be-passives. We apply regression analysis in order to gauge the effect of potential external factors that play a role in the choice between them: regional variety (with potential influence from the substrate in the contact varieties) and academic sub-discipline. The use of the passive has undergone change in the twentieth century (see, for example, Leech et al., 2009 ). As a necessary backdrop for variation found in the ICE corpora, we therefore use historical data from the extended Brown family of corpora, which have also been parsed at the University of Zürich. The results of our analysis show that regional variety is less important than academic sub-discipline: with the sole exception of American English, be-passives are about equally frequent in both ENL and contact varieties; moreover, they are distributed similarly across all varieties according to academic sub-discipline (humanities, social sciences, natural sciences and technology).

Mediating linguacultural asymmetries through ELF in unequal immigration encounters

The cognitive and communicative processes involved in situations of unequal encounters between non-western supplicants (i.e., African immigrants and asylum seekers) and western experts in authority shall be explored in this paper through a number of case studies aimed at illustrating that the variations of English as a ‘lingua franca’ (ELF) which each contact group uses obey different linguacultural conventions entailing a detachment of ELF from the norms of English as a native language (ENL), since ELF is seen as developing from non-native speakers’ processes of transfer into their English uses of their respective L1 typological, logical, textual, lexical-semantic and pragmatic structures. A number of case studies will illustrate how the lack of acknowledgement of other ELF variations – due to the fact that they are often perceived in intercultural communication as formally deviating and socio-pragmatically inappropriate – may have serious consequences in contexts involving social, legal, or health matters, thus giving rise to misunderstandings that often raise ethical issues about social justice. It is therefore argued that principled pedagogic initiatives aimed at making western experts in authority aware of the mediating strategies for achieving a ‘mutual accommodation’ of ELF variations could, on the one hand, protect the social identities of the participants in unequal encounters and, on the other, facilitate the conveyance of their respective culturally-marked knowledge. This would foster effective communication in cross-cultural immigration encounters with the ultimate aim of developing a ‘hybrid ELF mode’ of cross-cultural specialized communication that can be acknowledged and eventually shared by both interacting groups.

Non-conformity to ENL norms: a perspective from Chinese English users

Abstract English as a lingua franca (ELF) research poses challenge to mainstream English language teaching (ELT) in terms of its exclusive reference to English as a native language (ENL). On the other hand, some studies have been conducted to show that non-native English speakers (NNESs) have an aspiration for ENL and, in turn, add emphasis to ELT practitioners' effort in helping NNESs to approximate native English speaker (NES) competence. In response to the debate, this paper focuses on Chinese English speakers' perceptions of (non-)conformity to ENL in order to offer insights into the extent to which NNESs are ENL-(in)dependent. This paper draws on the data contributed by 502 Chinese university students and 267 Chinese professionals through questionnaires and interviews. The questionnaire responses displayed a slightly positive orientation towards instances of non-conformity to ENL norms and revealed the respondents' choice between the formulaic conformity and the functions of non-conformity. The interviews unfolded the tension between exonormative and endonormative orientations to English. The participants' exonormative orientations reflect their belief in the centrality of NESs to norms of English use, their conceptualization of English as a fixed entity, and their aspiration for social advantages that they believe the conformity to ENL norms can bring to them. Their endonormative orientations relate to their acknowledgement of the communicative function of English that diverges from the norms of ENL and their concern for their cultural identity, which they believe conflicts with the conformity to ENL norms. This paper thus demonstrates that the preference for ENL is only one side of NNESs' attitudinal picture. Further, the reasons behind this preference point to the need for change from monolithic English to pluralistic Englishes in mainstream ELT.

Mind the gap!

A paradigm gap has long separated the fields of World Englishes and Learner Englishes: they have mainly been dealt with separately and very little consideration has been given to the features that they might share. Recently, however, Nesselhauf (2009) has highlighted that some features thought to be variety-specific are in fact shared by World and Learner varieties. This paper examines their use of the high-frequency verb make in samples of corpora of student writing of four World Englishes, four Learner Englishes and a control corpus of English as a Native Language (ENL). This case study shows that, quantitatively, the World and Learner varieties are mainly characterized by heterogeneity, while qualitatively, a number of similarities distinguish them from ENL.

‘The English is not the same’: challenges in thesis writing for second language speakers of English

In this article I describe my interaction as an English for academic purposes (EAP) practitioner with a supervisor and her two postgraduate international students, both of whom were second language speakers of English (L2). Because of linguistic and relationship issues the supervisory experience for the parties was challenging and frustrating. I discuss the implications of this research and suggest that while linguistic difficulties impact negatively on the supervisory relationship this is exacerbated by the differing assumptions and expectations of the stakeholders. I argue, however, that what is regarded as ‘acceptable’ English at our institutions has not been sufficiently interrogated and the belief that English as a native language (ENL) is the only acceptable variety of English needs further investigation. Such an investigation needs to take place in a forum where the less powerful voices of the EAP practitioners and the students will not be marginalised.

Conceptual metaphor as a news-story promoter: The cases of ENL and EIL headlines

Abstract This paper explores conceptual metaphor as a news-story promoter in the English-as-a-native-language (ENL) and English-as-an-international-language (EIL) contexts, using a self-constructed corpus of 605 pairs of corresponding New York Times (NYT) and Times Supplement (TS) news stories. Identified from the corpus are the non-lexicalized linguistic realizations of conceptual metaphors in the headlines of the corresponding stories. Rhetorical functions of the identified conceptual metaphors are examined and analyzed with regard to their pragmatic roles as a news-story promoter. Metaphoric variations in figurative conventionality and cultural specificity between NYT and TS headlines are also discussed to reveal the effects of intercultural audience design. The results show that non-lexicalized metaphors foreground a stylistically appealing aspect of the story to draw the reader into the body of the story, that non-lexicalized metaphors in a grander style are used in NYT headlines to engage the ENL reader, that those in a plainer style are used in TS headlines to inform the EIL reader, and that non-lexicalized metaphors in the TS are in general less culture-specific than those in their NYT counterparts. The implication for EIL learning is discussed briefly at the end of the paper.