Energy Dispersive X-ray Analysis System Research Articles

The impact of zeolite on mineralogy changes and compressive strength development of cement-treated sand mixtures through microstructure analysis

The main objective of this research was to study the impact of zeolite on mineralogical changes led to the development of compressive strength of cemented-sand mixtures. The mixtures consisted of Portland cement type II, natural zeolite (Clinoptilolite) and Babolsar sand. The cement content was chosen to be 8% based on the dry weight of the sand. The experimental program consists of a cement substitute with 0, 35, 60 and 90 percent zeolite along with the amount of the optimal water content obtained from the standard compaction test. The samples were made by an under-compaction process and cured at room temperature for various periods of time (7, 28, 90 days). The microstructural properties were analyzed using X-Ray Diffractometer (XRD) tests and Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) tests equipped with an Energy Dispersive X-ray analysis system (EDX). In addition, an unconfined compression test was carried out for various zeolite percentages in the same curing time. Strong adhesion in the Interface Transition Zone (ITZ) resulted in densely compacted mineralogy in the presence of 35% zeolite, which promoted the Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS). The connection between microstructure and macrostructure was clearly shown suitable relations between compressive strength and the intensity of the C-S-H phase.

Fabrication and characterization of superhydrophobic coatings on cotton fabrics using silica nanoparticles for self-cleaning applications

The marvelous self-cleaning properties of lotus leaves and their superhydrophobic nature inspire the researchers to mimic such functionalities on cotton fabrics. The present work aimed to prepare and characterize true non-sticky superhydrophobic properties on cotton samples. The required combination of micro and nanostructure roughness was achieved by depositing the silica nanoparticles (SiNPs) on cotton surfaces by dip-coating method. To enhance adhesion and durability of silica particles with cotton, SiNPs were functionalized with 3-Aminopropyltriethoxysilane (APTES) before deposition. The surface energy of SiNPs coated cotton samples was lowered by functionalizing with 1H, 1H, 2H, 2H-Perfluorooctyltriethoxysilane (PFOTS). The morphology, surface chemistry and wettability characterizations of prepared samples were performed by scanning electron microscope (SEM), energy dispersive X-ray analysis (EDX) and contact angle measurement system (goniometer) respectively. SEM micrographs revealed the nice decoration of SiNPs (having particles size range 90-150 nm) on the cotton fibers leaving to the hierarchical roughness. The EDX analysis confirmed the coatings of SiNPs and PFOTS. Contact angle measurements exhibited the superhydrophobic nature of prepared surfaces by static water contact angle of 157±2° and sliding angle of less than 5. The functionalized SiNPs/PFOTS cotton fabrics can effectively be used for self-cleaning applications.

Article 5

The archeological sites in El-Kharga oasis represent a tangible cultural heritage of outstanding universal value. Such monuments have suffered environmental and climatic hazards, especially the climate extreme and climate change throughout thousands of years. The current research focuses on determining the deterioration response that has occurred for hundreds of years to the impacts of environmental and climatic hazards in El-Kharga oasis since the Twenty-sixth Dynasty (664 BC) such as the temple of Hibis and beyond many Greek-Roman temples of 13 largest archeological sites (i.e. Umm El Dabadeb, Ain Amur, El-Nadoura, Kasr El-Zayyan, Doush temple, Deir El Monira, Ain El Labkha, Kasr El-Ghawieta, El Gib, Qasr El Somira, Al Tarakwa, El Dabashya and Remains of prehistoric times as in Gebel el-Teir). The current study aims to determine the environmental hazards that affect archaeological sites that represent a tangible cultural heritage in the study area under investigation, to understand and predict the type, nature, and magnitude of environmental hazards that affect the archeological sites in El-Kharga oasis. The fieldwork was accomplished with laboratory tests for some rock samples selected from sites with delegated weathering type and deterioration group of all the archeo-logical sites under investigation. Seventy-one samples have been tested by X-ray diffraction analysis (XRD), polarizing microscopy (PLM), and scanning electron microscopy equipped with an energy-dispersive X-ray analysis system (SEM-EDX). Based on the results of the current study, it has been concluded that most archaeological sites under investigations have reached the categories of severe damage, based on laboratory analyzes and periodic field studies. The present study concluded that there are several potential environmental hazards with significant impact on archaeological areas in El-Kharga oasis include (weathering hazard represents 45%, underground water hazard represents 18%, sand encroachment hazard represents 12%, human-induced hazard represents 15% and climate extremes and climate change hazards represent 10%) of total deterioration ratios, and in some cases, through graffiti.

Improving heavy oil oxidation performance by oil-dispersed CoFe2O4 nanoparticles in In-situ combustion process for enhanced oil recovery

In this work, bimetallic oxide CoFe2O4 nanoparticles were synthesized by the hydrothermal method. CoFe2O4 nanoparticles were coated by oleic acid (CoFe2O4@oleic acid) to provide the oil-dispersed catalyst for accelerating heavy oil oxidation in in-situ combustion (ISC) process for enhanced oil recovery (EOR). The synthesized CoFe2O4 and CoFe2O4@oleic acid nanoparticles were characterized by XRD, Mössbauer spectroscopy, and high-resolution field emission scanning electron microscope (FESEM) equipped with energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) analysis system, etc. The catalytic performance of CoFe2O4 and CoFe2O4@oleic acid nanoparticles in heavy oil oxidation process was studied by TG-FTIR and high-pressure differential scanning calorimetry (HP-DSC) as well as kinetics calculation using isoconversional methods (KAS, OFW, and Friedman). The results showed that CoFe2O4@oleic acid nanoparticles were gradually decomposed during the oxidation process and formed CoFe2O4 nanoparticles that have most likely cationic distribution Co0.1Fe0.9[Fe1.1Co0.9]O4. CoFe2O4@oleic acid nanoparticles showed a much higher catalytic activity than CoFe2O4, which benefits from the uniform dispersion and distribution of CoFe2O4@oleic acid and its decomposed products (CoFe2O4) in the entire oxidation process of the heavy oil. It significantly shifted the FD and HTO reaction into lower temperatures, enhanced the heat release, and reduced the energy barriers of FD, thus promoting the formation of coke and its combustion with high efficiency. The high catalytic activity together with its low cost make this catalyst a good candidate for its wide use in the ISC process for improving its combustion efficiency and success rate for heavy oil production.

Evolution of Phase Composition and Antibacterial Activity of Zr–C Thin Films

The research presented in this article concerns Zr–C coatings which were deposited on 304L steel by reactive magnetron sputtering from the Zr target in an Ar–C2H2 atmosphere at various acetylene flow rates, resulting in various atomic carbon concentrations in the coating. The article describes research covering the change in the antibacterial and anticorrosive properties of these coatings due to the change in their chemical and phase composition. The concentration of C in the coatings varied from 21 to 79 at.%. The coating morphology and the elemental distribution in individual coatings were characterized using field emission scanning electron microscopy with an energy-dispersive X-ray analytical system. X-ray diffraction and Raman spectroscopy were used to analyze their microstructure and phase composition. Parallel changes in the mechanical properties of the coatings were analyzed. Based on the obtained results, it was concluded that the wide possibility of shaping the mechanical properties of Zr–C coatings in combination with relatively good antibacterial properties after exceeding 50 at.% of carbon concentration in coatings and high protective potential of these coatings make them a good candidate for medical applications. In particular, corrosion tests showed the high anti-pitting potential of Zr–C coatings in the environment of artificial saliva.

Investigation of properties of cement mortar incorporating pond ash – An environmental sustainable material

Abstract This study focused on the use of coal-based pond ash from Bhusawal thermal power plant (India) as a fine aggregate and cement replacement in cement mortar at a replacement percentage from 0% to 100%. Two series of cement mortar mixes were prepared. Experimental analysis based on properties of mortar such as compressive strength, flexural strength, workability, setting time, bulk densities by addition of pond ash in a mortar. Investigation on the physical properties of mortar incorporating pond ash through X-ray diffraction (XRD), X-ray Fluorescence (XRF), and scanning electron microscope (SEM) with an energy dispersive X-ray analysis system (SEM-EDX) was also done to study microstructure analysis and to correlate these physical properties with mechanical properties of cement mortar. The presence of pond ash in series-I affects the strength positively with inclusion up to 40% replaced with sand in mortar series-I. With the increased content of pond ash replacement beyond 10% with cement, the strength of mortar seems to be reduced. The SEM results showed growth of dense crystalline plate-like structure and give evidence of portlandite leads to solidification of mortar mass when pond ash was replaced with sand in the mortar. The presence of portlandite through SEM represents the solidification and densification of mortar mass. The addition of pond ash leads to an increase in the amount of CSH gel in the mortar. This may be the reason for the improved performance of mortar up to certain level of replacements.

Photocatalytic Self-cleaning by Nanocomposite Fibers Containing Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles

Titanium dioxide (TiO2), a well-known photocatalyst, was incorporated into poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) nanofibers via electrospinning to develop self-cleaning textile materials that can decompose organic contaminants and stains on the textile surface by light irradiation. TiO2/PVA nanocomposite fiber webs were prepared from PVA solutions that contained 5, 10, and 20 wt% TiO2 nanoparticles. The morphologies and chemical compositions of the composite fibers were characterized using scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, and an energy dispersive X-ray analysis system. The TiO2/PVA nanocomposite fiber webs were thermally treated to increase their stability in an aqueous environment. To evaluate the self-cleaning performance, the fiber webs were saturated using a methylene blue dye solution and red wine. Different light sources, i.e., ultraviolet (UV) light, visible light, and fluorescent light, were used to examine their effects on the photocatalytic self-cleaning activities of the TiO2/PVA nanocomposite fiber webs. The color changes of the methylene blue and red wine stains on the fiber webs were assessed with the time of light exposure over a period of 24 h. The results depicted that the decomposition rates of the methylene blue and red wine stains by the fiber webs varied in the order of fluorescent light < visible light < UV light. Generally, the decomposition rate increased by increasing the time of light exposure and the TiO2 concentration. Our findings demonstrated the self-cleaning performance of the electrospun composite fibers containing TiO2 nanoparticles not only under UV light but also under visible and fluorescent light that are commonly used indoors.

Reactivity of porous titanium oxide film and chitosan layer electrochemically formed on Ti-6Al-4V alloy in biological solution

Uniform porous TiO2 film on Ti-6Al-4V alloy was obtained by hard anodic oxidation and successfully the chitosan layer was electrodeposited. Surface morphology, compositional properties and diffraction patterns were analyzed by scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive X-ray analysis system and X-ray diffraction. The reactivity of anodic porous TiO2 film in the presence or absence of chitosan layer was investigated by electrochemical methods in biological solution and compared with the reactivity with the unmodified Ti-6Al-4V alloy surface. The electrochemical impedance spectroscopy method was used to compare the response reactivity of the three surfaces. The combination of the high biocompatibility of chitosan and good mechanical characteristics of Ti-6Al-4V alloy make the obtained porous TiO2 film combined with chitosan a promising method to improve the reactivity of medical implants in biological solution.

Nano- and Submicron Particles Emission during Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) of Steel: Differences between Automatic and Manual Process

Welding operations originate micro and nanoparticles represented by metal oxides, unoxidized metals and compounds, such as fluorides and chlorides. Welding fumes exposure is associated to lung cancer, chronic bronchitis, asthma and early Parkinson disease. Ultrafine (nanosized) particles in welding fumes are considered a risk factor in terms of occupational exposure: when inhaled, they are efficiently deposited in all regions of the respiratory tract and can translocate to other target organs as brain and systemic circulation. The study of nanoparticles emissions during welding can help to understand effects related also to new-engineered nanoparticles exposure.In our study two real sources of Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) fume particles, collected in an automotive plant, were characterized by means of a transmission electron microscope coupled with an energy-dispersive X-ray analytical system (TEM-EDS) and compared to a zone of the plant far from the two sources used as a reference background. The particles sampled during the automatic GTAW process were mainly constituted by iron/manganese oxide with a mean diameter of 47 nm, followed by smaller iron oxide nanoparticles (21 nm). During the manual welding process mostly aggregates with larger diameters that showed an X-ray spectrum characteristic of different kinds of silicates were found. Iron and cobalt oxides nanoparticles were present only inside bigger aggregates mainly composed of aluminum and titanium oxides.This study confirms that welders are exposed to nano- and submicron particles and that iron/manganese oxide nanoparticles are the most representative in automatic process, despite the low concentration of manganese in welding wires (1–2%). Our results help to understand hazard related to welding fumes exposure and possible effects of nanoparticles on lung, brain and systemic circulation.

Influence of Ce Content on the Mechanical Properties of Sintered (Ce, Nd)–Fe–B Magnets

The (R,Ce)–Fe–B magnets have been successfully industrialized in recent years. The mechanical property of sintered permanent magnets is one important aspect of their comprehensive performances, which directly influences the service reliability and the production cost. In this paper, the bending strength, fracture toughness, Vickers hardness, and brittleness index of commercial (R1– x Ce x )30.5–31.5Febal.B1M1 magnets with different cerium contents have been investigated. The micro-fractures of the magnets were observed by a scanning electron microscopy equipped with energy dispersive X-ray analysis system. It shows that the bending strength and the fracture toughness of (R,Ce)–Fe–B magnets have a downward tendency with increasing Ce content x, while the Vickers hardness of the magnets varies irregularly with Ce contents in this paper. The optimum mechanical properties have been obtained in the (R1– x Ce x )30.5–31.5Febal.B1M1 magnet with $x = 0.15$ ; the bending strength, fracture toughness and brittleness index of the magnet with $x =0.15$ are obviously superior to those of the ordinary sintered Nd–Fe–B magnets. Some flocculent oxide phases have been discovered in the (R,Ce)–Fe–B magnet with $x = 0.15$ . The flocculent phases may absorb the crack propagating energy, and reduce the stress concentration at a crack tip, which is beneficial to strengthening and toughening of (R,Ce)–Fe–B magnets. However, the mechanical properties are obviously worse for the magnet with $x = 0.45$ (Ce/ $\sum $ RE = 45%). That is probably because the microstructures of the magnet with $x = 0.45$ become deteriorated, in which abnormally large grains have been observed.

Evaluating the NOx Storage Catalysts (NSC) Aging: A Preliminary Analytical Study with Electronic Microscopy

This paper describes an expeditious and reliable method for determining the thermal effects in a static condition of commercial NOx storage catalysts (NSCs) using scanning electron microscopy with an energy dispersive X-ray analytical system (SEM/EDS). It is worth remarking that possible changes in the morphology and in the elemental composition of the catalyst may be considered as the most important causes of the lower conversion of NOx. The information attained in this work indicates that Pt nanoparticle sintering is strongly increased by the oxygen exposure, and this can be considered a very useful preliminary investigation for the studies already present in the literature on the efficiency of NSCs.

Synthesis and application of magnetic chlorapatite nanoparticles for zinc (II), cadmium (II) and lead (II) removal from water solutions

Magnetic chlorapatite nanoparticles (MNCLAP) was synthesized and used as adsorbent to remove Zn2+, Cd2+ and Pb2+ from aqueous solutions. The synthesized MNCLAP was characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy dispersive analysis system of X-ray (EDAX), transmission electron microscopy (TEM) X-ray powder diffraction (XRD) and magnetization curves. Influence of different sorption parameters, such as equilibration time, initial heavy metal concentration, the amount of MNCLAP, pH values and competition adsorption were investigated in this study. Moreover, the desorption experiment was also carried out to explore the adsorption property of MNCLAP. The adsorption kinetic data has a very high correlation coefficient (R2=0.9999) with the pseudo-second-order kinetic model, and the Langmuir model was used in describing adsorption isotherms. The maximum adsorption capacities of MNCLAP adsorbent towards Zn2+, Cd2+ and Pb2+ were 1.1769, 1.1022 and 1.1546mmolg−1, respectively. EDTA solution was the best efficient eluant for heavy metal desorption with 25.94%, 22.95% and 32.84% released rate of Zn2+, Cd2+ and Pb2+, respectively. Experimental results revealed that the prepared MNCLAP combined both the properties of chlorapatite and magnetic material and it showed remarkable advantages in heavy metal removal from aqueous solutions.

The Analysis of Foundry Engineering of Copper Alloys Based on the Research of a Metallurgist Settlement in Szczepidło

Abstract The article presents chosen aspects of foundry engineering of the settlement dwellers, including the archaeometric characteristics and metal science analysis of the artefacts, as well as an attempted reconstruction of the production organization. Discovered in Szczepidło (Greater Poland), the foundry workshop is unique in Central European Bronze Age. This workshop foundry operated roughly XIV-XII Century BC. Its production is evidenced by the presence of markers of the whole production cycle: semi-finished and finished products, production waste, fragments of crucibles and casting ladles with traces of usage, and tools. On this basis, the alloys and foundry technologies used have been described. The analysis of foundry technology of copper alloys in the settlement area was carried out by observing the surface and structure of the products, semi-finished artefacts and fragments of crucibles by applying optical microscopy (OM), confocal microscopy (CLSM) and Xray radiography (RT). The investigations of compositions were made by means of the energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (ED-XRF) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) coupled with an energy dispersive X-ray analysis system (EDS).

Preparation and Characterization Studies of Nanostructured CdO Thin Films by SILAR Method for Photocatalytic Applications

This work reports the preparation of cadmium oxide (CdO) thin films with different molar concentrations on glass substrate by simple and low cost SILAR (Successive Ionic Layer Adsorption and Reaction) method. The characterization, XRD pattern confirmed the presence of polycrystalline CdO in the deposited thin films with the cubic structure. The surface morphology and elemental composition of prepared thin films have been examined by scanning electron microscopy equipped with energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) analysis system. The optical property of the films was analyzed by UV–visible spectroscopy. The band gap of the deposited thin films was estimated by Tauc’s plot and it was found to be 2.6–2.8 eV. The prepared thin films were examined for the decomposition of the Methylene Blue (MB) dye which was visualized by UV-Visible spectroscopy, by decreasing the intensity of absorbance and concentration.

Identification and Conservation State of Painted Wall Plasters at the Funerary House in Necropolis of Tuna El-Gebel, El-Minia-Upper Egypt

During this study, the principal aim carried out was to obtain more information about technique and conservation conditions of the Egyptian wall paintings during the Roman period in the funerary house in necropolis of Tuna el-Gabal, El-Minia-Upper Egypt. It’s going back to 2nd century AD and involves different sites of Ptolemaic and Roman chapels; some are in the immaculate established style while others are a blend of Pharaonic-Greek style and both are secured with mural painting. Deterioration problems observed on the wall paintings of the funerary house are, loss of plaster layers, disintegration of plaster layers, loss of paint layers (blistering and peeling), discoloration and severely damaged owing to a lot of deterioration factors as weakness of mud brick support, deterioration of surface treatments and to the widespread presence of different salts. The materials used in the painting, preparation layers and the state of conservation of the mural painting at funerary house were investigated by integrated physio-chemical measurements, particularly micro-Raman spectroscopy (µRaman), light optical microscopy (LOM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) coupled with an energy dispersive X-ray analysis system (EDX), X-ray powder diffraction (XRD) and Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR). In addition, the morphology of multilayer plaster from wall painting was investigated using atomic force microscopy (AFM). A wide color palette utilized as a part of the necropolis has been identified with mineral pigments and pigment mixtures. It is found that, the paints were based on an organic binder and traditional pigments (azurite, hematite, ochre, vegetable black) were used as colorants on plaster. The examination demonstrated that the preparatory layer is verging on made of pure lime while the plaster layer based mainly of lime and gypsum with variable amounts of quartz. The obtained results provided information about the painting technique, chemical composition, crystal structure in addition to the stratigraphy of the paint layers and the state of preservation and on the causes of the painting deterioration. Furthermore, the obtained results can be used in the conservation and restoration interventions of these sites.

Archaeometallurgical Investigations of the Early Iron Age Casting Workshop at Kamieniec. A Preliminary Study

Abstract This preliminary study characterizes the bronze metalworking on a defensive settlement of the Lusatian culture in former Kamieniec (Chełmno land, Poland) as it is reflected through casting workshop recovered during recent excavations. Among ready products, the ones giving evidence of local metallurgy (e.g. casting moulds and main runners) were also identified. With the shrinkage cavities and dendritic microstructures revealed, the artifacts prove the implementing a casting method by the Lusatian culture metalworkers. The elemental composition indicates application of two main types of bronzes: Cu-Sn and Cu-Pb. Aside these main alloying additions, some natural impurities such as silver, arsenic, antimony and nickel were found which may be attributed to the origin of the ore and casting technology. The collection from Kamieniec was described in terms of its structure and composition. The investigations were made by means of the energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (ED-XRF), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) coupled with an energy dispersive X-ray analysis system (EDS) and optical microscopy (OM). In order to fingerprint either local or non-local profile of the alloys, the ED-XRF data-set was statistically evaluated using a factor analysis (FA).

Copper nanoparticles-sputtered bacterial cellulose nanocomposites displaying enhanced electromagnetic shielding, thermal, conduction, and mechanical properties

Nanoscale bacterial cellulose (BC) may be functionalized to provide advanced eco-friendly substrates. In the current work, BC was functionalized by magnetron sputtering of copper (Cu) to endow it with unique electromagnetic shielding properties while concomitantly improving mechanical, thermal, and conduction properties. The surface morphologies and chemical characteristics of BC/Cu nanocomposites were studied by atomic force microscope, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, thermogravimetric analysis, X-ray diffraction and energy dispersive X-ray analysis system to conclusively demonstrate that Cu nanoparticles were evenly deposited on the surfaces. This topological construct enhanced the thermal stability, surface conductivity, mechanical properties, and interference (EMI) shielding effectiveness. EMI effects were also investigated by the four-point probe, uniaxial testing machine and a vector network analyzer that showed the BC/Cu nanoscale materials have high conductivity (0.026 S m−1), good mechanical properties (41.4 Mpa) and excellent EMI shielding (55 dB).

Effect of the Sliding Velocity on the Size and Amount of Airborne Wear Particles Generated from Dry Sliding Wheel–Rail Contacts

A set of frictional experiments have been conducted on a pin-on-disk apparatus to investigate the effect of the sliding velocity on airborne wear particles generated from dry sliding wheel–rail contacts. The size and the amount of generated particles were acquired by using particle counter instruments during the whole test period. After the completion of tests, the morphology and chemical compositions of pin worn surfaces and collected particles were analyzed by using scanning electron microscopy combined with an energy-dispersive X-ray analysis system. The results show that the total particle number concentration increases dramatically with an increased sliding velocity from 0.1 to 3.4 m/s. Moreover, the fine and ultrafine particles (<1 µm) dominates the particle generation mode in the case of a high sliding velocity (1.2 and 3.4 m/s). The contact temperature variation is observed to be closely related to the size mode of the particle generation. In addition, the sliding velocity is found to influence the active wear. Correspondingly, an oxidative wear is identified as the predominant wear mechanisms for cases with high sliding velocities (1.2 and 3.4 m/s). This produces a substantial number of iron oxide-containing particles (<1 µm) and reduces the wear rate to a relative low level (the wear rate for a 3.4 m/s sliding velocity is 4.5 % of that for a 0.4 m/s sliding velocity).

Scanning and transmission electron microscopy and X-ray analysisof leaf salt glands of Limoniastrum guyonianum Boiss. under NaCl salinity

Leaf salt glands of Limoniastrum guyonianum were examined by scanning and transmission electron microscopes and energy dispersive X-ray analysis (EDAX) system, after growing for three months on sandy soil with or without 300mM NaCl. Results showed that salt glands were irregularly scattered on both leaf sides and sunk under the epidermal level. Salt excretion occurred in both conditions and is mainly composed of calcium and magnesium in control plants, and essentially sodium and chloride in plants subjected to salt treatment. A salt gland is comprised of collecting, accumulating, and central compartments, and is made up of total thirty-two cells. The collecting cells were characterized by large central vacuoles. Accumulating cells contain numerous, large, and unshaped vacuoles and rudimentary chloroplasts. The central compartment was comprised of four basal cells and each one is surmounted by an apical cell. The basal cells are granulated, containing large nucleus, numerous mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes, polyribosomes, and small vacuoles or vesicles. Equally, the apical cells are rich in organelles. Application of 300mM NaCl to the culture medium increased vacuoles number and size, and organelles density especially the mitochondria which suggests energy requirement for ions transport. The reduction in size and number of vacuoles toward the interior of salt glands of treated plants and the fusion of the smallest ones with the plasma membrane substantiate the implication of such vacuoles in salt excretion process. The current study which is the first report on L. guyonianum salt gland has provided an in-depth understanding on structure–function relationship in the multicellular salt glands.

The Climate and Its Impacts on Egyptian Civilized Heritage: Ei-Nadura Temple in El- Kharga Oasis, Western Desert of Egypt As a Case Study

Abstract Undoubtedly, El-Kharga Oasis monumental sites are considered an important part of our world´s cultural heritage in the South Western Desert of Egypt. These sites are scattered on the floor of the oasis representing ancient civilizations. The Roman stone monuments in Kharga represent cultural heritage of an outstanding universal value. Such those monuments have suffered weathering deterioration. There are various elements which affect the weathering process of stone monuments: climate conditions, shapes of cultural heritages, exposed time periods, terrains, and vegetation around them, etc. Among these, climate conditions are the most significant factor affecting the deterioration Archeological sites in Egypt. El- Kharga Oasis belongs administratively to the New Valley Governorate. It is located in the southern part of the western desert of Egypt, lies between latitudes 22º30'14" and 26º00'00" N, and between 30º27'00" and 30º47'00" E. The area of El Kharga Oasis covers about 7500 square kilometers. Pilot studies were carried out on the EI-Nadura Temple, composed of sandstones originating from the great sand sea. The major objective of this study is to monitor and measure the weathering features and the weathering rate affecting the building stones forming El- Nadora Roman building rocks in cubic cm. To achieve that aims the present study used analysis of climatic data such as annual and seasonal solar radiation, Monthly average number of hours of sunshine, maximum and minimum air temperatures, wind speed, which have obtained from actual field measurements and data Meteorological Authority of El-Kharga station for the period 1941 to 2000 (60 years), and from the period 1941-2050 (110 years) as a long term of temperature data. Several samples were collected and examined by polarizing microscopy (PLM), X-ray diffraction analysis (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy equipped with an energy dispersive X-ray analysis system (SEM-EDX). The results were in agreement with the observed values in the study area. The deterioration of El-Nadora temple is above 45 % of original temple (138-161 BC), these deteriorations have occurred not only due to the age of the structures, but also due to the climate elements. It was found that the climate is the most important elements influencing weathering. El-Nadora temple is highly influenced by wind action because it has built on a hill top 180 meter in hyper arid climate and exposed to wind without any obstruction. Finally, El-Nadora Temple has lost about 42.46 % of its original size, and if the rate of deterioration on those rates will disappear the major landmarks, symbols and inscriptions fully in 2150.