Transportation Energy Use Research Articles

Taxes to influence energy use in road transportation in Australia

The desire to achieve a shift towards renewable energy will be difficult to achieve without a change in the energy use in road transportation in Australia. The transport sector in Australia is heavily reliant on oil and is responsible for contributing 18.1%, of Australia's annual greenhouse gas emissions. This paper examines the current Australian tax policy and its inability to make an impact on transport choices that would reduce energy use and emissions and promote alternative energy use. Some of the current taxes such as the luxury car tax can be singled out as a tax that has passed its “use-by” date. The paper explores how the Australian Government can use targeted taxation measures in order to encourage the purchase of low energy consumption and low-emission vehicles, reduce the number of registered cars on Australian roads and control the use of cars as a means of personal transportation. A comprehensive tax measure suggested in this paper is the luxury energy tax based on the premise that energy use in transportation is a luxury and should be taxed appropriately in order to curb its use and bring about a behaviour change in the choice and usage of motor vehicles.

TripEnergy: Estimating Personal Vehicle Energy Consumption Given Limited Travel Survey Data

Estimating personal vehicle energy consumption is important for nationwide climate policy, local and statewide environmental policy, and technology planning. Transportation energy use is complex, depending on vehicle performance and the driving behavior of individuals, as well as on travel patterns of cities and regions. Previous studies combine large samples of travel behavior with fixed estimates of per mile fuel economy or use detailed models of vehicles with limited samples of travel behavior. This paper presents a model for estimating privately operated vehicle energy consumption—TripEnergy—that accurately reconstructs detailed driving behavior across the United States and simulates vehicle performance for different driving conditions. The accuracy of this reconstruction was tested by using out-of-sample predictions, and the vehicle model was tested against microsimulation. TripEnergy consists of a demand model, linking GPS drive cycles to travel survey trips, and a vehicle model, efficiently simulating energy consumption across different types of driving. Because of its ability to link small-scale variation in vehicle technology and driver behavior with large-scale variation in travel patterns, it is expected to be useful for a variety of applications, including technology assessment, cost and energy savings from ecodriving, and the integration of electric vehicle technologies into the grid.

Life cycle analysis of corn‐stover‐derived polymer‐grade l‐lactic acid and ethyl lactate: greenhouse gas emissions and fossil energy consumption

AbstractCo‐production of high‐value chemicals with biofuels could improve the economic viability of biorefineries while reducing biofuel life‐cycle greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and fossil energy consumption (FEC). Polymer‐grade lactic acid (PGLA) is a high‐potential bioproduct currently produced from first‐generation feedstocks. Opportunity exists to enhance its environmental performance using cellulosic feedstocks. Moreover, ethyl lactate can be used as a functional replacement for high‐volume, energy‐intensive, and emissions‐intensive petroleum‐derived chemicals such as N‐methyl‐2‐pyrrolidone and ethyl acetate. Based on material and energy flows from Aspen Plus process models that we incorporated into the Greenhouse gases, Regulated Emissions, and Energy use in Transportation (GREET) model's bioproducts module, we developed life‐cycle GHG emissions and FEC estimates for ethyl lactate and PGLA produced from corn stover. We compared these results to those for fossil‐fuel‐derived counterparts, identified key LCA drivers, and explored the impact of end‐of‐life assumptions on LCA results. Irrespective of the end‐of‐life assumption, all the bioproducts demonstrated lower life‐cycle FEC (10–72%) and GHG emissions (23–90%) than fossil‐derived compounds for which they could serve as a functional replacement. Additionally, we reviewed the role of LCA in three major bioproduct sustainability certification schemes (the BioPreferred Program, the Roundtable on Sustainable Biomaterials, and International Sustainability and Carbon Certification Plus). None mandate an LCA of the bioproduct to assess whether, across the supply chain, these products offer environmental benefits as compared to conventional chemicals they could displace either directly or functionally. © 2016 Society of Chemical Industry and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

Uncertainty analysis focusing on the variance of energy intensity of vehicle materials

This paper serves as both a literature review and a preliminary study of the quantitative effects of temporality relating to the age of data as well as spatiality in Life Cycle Assessment. Temporality and spatiality due to age of data have not been the subject of formal analysis. In this study, temporality and spatiality is studied in relation to the input stages of manufacture as opposed to emissions-related studies. To this end, the Greenhouse gases, Regulatory Emissions, and Energy use in Transportation 2 model is used. Created by the Argonne National Laboratory, this model offers information on the life cycle of sedans, sport-utility vehicles and pick-up trucks with a variety of different power train configurations and manufacturing of materials. Historic data on net energy intensity for materials of manufacture were analyzed using Monte Carlo simulations in order to explore temporal and spatial variability which can be attributed to age of data. Subsequent analysis showed that, depending on the mix of materials used, temporal and spatial variation has quantified effects on total energy calculations for all vehicle types. However, this variation is dependent on the type of material in question and its corresponding weight. A set of variability analysis tools previously unused in Life Cycle Assessments was used to establish a platform for future analysis in this area, including previous precepts regarding the use of predefined probability distributions (normal, lognormal, etc.) in modeling. The temporal and spatial variance due to the age of data found here have significance in the inventory stage and for the robustness of Life Cycle Assessment findings. In doing so, this study brought attention to a subject which could have consequences across a wide variety of industrial manufacturing activities.

Disruptive Innovation on Two Wheels: Chinese Urban Transportation and Electrification of the Humble Bike

This communication argues that the electrification of the conventional bicycle could perhaps be a solution to the issues surrounding urban transportation in emerging economies. As illustrated through the trajectory of E-Bike development and adoption in China, such innovations can be disruptive when implemented in untapped mass markets of the developing world. A historical as well as prospective lens was adopted to describe the socio-economic significance of E-bike expansion in China. Further, by simultaneously considering the current Chinese urban transport mix, the primary energy use in transport as well as projections of future E-Bikes sales, it is also asserted that that, although the E-Bike is not an entirely sustainable solution to urban transport; it however is a solution that has the potential to achieve high sustainability. The realization of any environmental co-benefits due to the adoption of the E-Bike hinges primarily upon the adoption of improvements in other sectors of the economy (electricity generation). Indeed, the E-Bike does exemplify that grass-root, inexpensive and sustainable solutions to our urban transportation problems do exist.

Low carbon pathways for light goods vehicles in Ireland

Transport is the most significant energy consuming sector in Ireland, accounting for 40% of final energy demand in 2013, with private cars and road freight contributing 51% and 25% to transport energy demand respectively. Despite a large literature body analysing private car energy use, there has been very little published analysis on freight transport, which itself has largely been limited to one aspect of freight transport, namely heavy goods vehicles (HGVs). This paper focuses on the energy and related CO2 emissions associated with light goods vehicles (LGVs) in Ireland, which contributes to addressing the knowledge gap in freight transport energy use. Low carbon pathways for LGV transport in Ireland, which align with an 80% CO2 emissions reduction by 2050 (relative to 1990), were developed using scenario analysis and a multi-model approach, which included i) the Irish TIMES energy systems model – a least cost optimisation model of the Irish energy system - and ii) an LGV stock model for Ireland – a sectoral simulation model of LGVs in Ireland. The introduction of energy efficiency measures and indigenous gaseous biofuels were found to be key elements in a technically feasible roadmap, which can meet the required CO2 emissions reduction target.

Global Patterns and Trends for Non‐Metallic Minerals used for Construction

SummaryDespite accounting for almost 50% of global material use, nonmetallic minerals—mostly used for construction of buildings and infrastructure—are the material flow analysis (MFA) category with the highest uncertainty. The main reason for this is incomplete reporting in official national statistics because of ease of availability and the low per‐unit cost of these materials. However, the environmental burden associated with nonmetallic minerals, which include energy use for extraction and transport, land‐use change, and disposal of large amounts of construction demolition waste, call for a thorough understanding of the magnitude of nonmetallic mineral flows. Previous estimates for nonmetallic minerals have used simplistic assumptions. This study aims to increase the precision of nonmetallic mineral accounts at national and global level using consumption of bitumen, bricks, cement, and railways in combination with technical coefficients from the engineering literature to infer the actual yearly consumption of nonmetallic minerals. We estimate the extraction of nonmetallic minerals and provide uncertainty estimates for the new accounts as well as information about consumption by different sectors. Analyzing the evolution of consumption for seven world regions, we find that, in North America and Europe, the consumption of nonmetallic minerals over the past 40 years has followed the growth patterns of population, whereas for all other regions consumption has been closely related to gross domestic product (GDP). A more accurate account of global and country‐by‐country extraction of nonmetallic minerals may provide insights into supply shortages and inform waste management strategies for construction and demolition waste.

Assessing the energy intensity of peri-urbanisation: A master plan approach

The present study explores the effects of peri-urban land use planning on residential and transportation energy use and on related CO2 emissions on the urban fringe of Tartu, a medium sized town in Estonia, by matching energy demand with the operational scale of physical planning, with master plans and dwellings serving as survey elements. Three life cycle assessment (LCA) categories are covered: the energy use of manufacturing building materials, the energy needs of the operational use of dwellings, and the energy use of private car transportation in a total of 239 master planned settlements. The results show that detached single-family houses consume an average of 41.2MWh of energy and emit 19.7t of CO2 annually and are approximately 2.5–2.9 times as energy and CO2 emission intensive as apartment dwellings and 1.5–1.6 times as intensive as semi-detached dwellings. Although no significant variation in energy use per square metre was found, the results indicate that single-family dwellings tend to have larger floor areas per person and located further away from the city centre. Therefore, they require more energy, especially in operational phases and transportation sectors, underlining a need for a more effective land use planning framework for peri-urban areas.

On the use of waste heat in a two-stage production system with controllable production rates

Industrial energy consumption accounts for approximately one third of the energy consumed by the four major end-uses of energy (i.e., residential, commercial, industrial, and transportation energy use). Manufacturing is thereby responsible for the majority of energy that is consumed in industry. The scarcity of resources, rising energy prices, and an increasing awareness that lowering energy usage is a prerequisite for sustainable production processes has induced researchers to consider energy consumption in the management of production systems. This paper contributes to this emerging stream of research by studying the role of waste heat in production planning and control. More specifically, it investigates the case where industrial waste heat can be converted into electricity, which can then be used to support operating the production stages. This paper introduces the generation and transformation of waste heat into a lot size model and investigates how lot sizing policies change if waste heat is used to operate the system. Special attention is paid to the scheduling of interruptions between production runs and the determination of optimal production rates. The results of the paper indicate that using waste heat resulting from production reduces the overall energy requirements of a production system. The inventory policies developed in this paper support an efficient use of waste heat.

The Effect of Urbanization on Road Energy Consumption and CO2 Emissions in Emerging Megacity of Jakarta, Indonesia

Few studies have been made to explore quantitatively and systematically the impact of urbanization on transport energy use for cities in emerging countries. This paper tries to examine the relationship between urbanization and transport sector energy use in megacity Jakarta. Data from Jakarta Statistical Bureau for the megacity Jakarta and the period 2001-2014 are used and analyzed. Applying both the carbon-emissions-coefficient and the transport-energy-consumption method, we predicted the carbon emissions based on energy consumption, explored the characteristics of energy consumption and carbon emissions in different urbanization stages. Our results show the existence of co-integration and validated that urbanization is a major contributor in transport energy consumption. Income raises vehicle ownership and travel demand. The causality analysis finds that urbanization Granger causes transport energy consumption.

Carsharing’s life-cycle impacts on energy use and greenhouse gas emissions

This paper examines the life-cycle inventory impacts on energy use and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions as a result of candidate travelers adopting carsharing in US settings. Here, households residing in relatively dense urban neighborhoods with good access to transit and traveling relatively few miles in private vehicles (roughly 10% of the U.S. population) are considered candidates for carsharing. This analysis recognizes cradle-to-grave impacts of carsharing on vehicle ownership levels, travel distances, fleet fuel economy (partly due to faster turnover), parking demand (and associated infrastructure), and alternative modes. Results suggest that current carsharing members reduce their average individual transportation energy use and GHG emissions by approximately 51% upon joining a carsharing organization. Collectively, these individual-level effects translate to roughly 5% savings in all household transport-related energy use and GHG emissions in the U.S. These energy and emissions savings can be primarily attributed to mode shifts and avoided travel, followed by savings in parking infrastructure demands and fuel consumption. When indirect rebound effects are accounted for (assuming travel-cost savings is then spent on other goods and services), net savings are expected to be 3% across all U.S. households.

Integration of transportation energy processes with a net zero energy community using captured waste hydrogen from electrochemical plants

Currently, hydrocarbon fuels are the main source of energy used in the transportation sector. However, these fuels are responsible for a relatively large proportion of the overall greenhouse gas emissions in many societies. In an effort to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, alternative energy carriers such as hydrogen can be used to allow renewable energy resources to replace hydrocarbon fuels in the transportation sector. Electrochemical and other process industries frequently vent or flare hydrogen into the atmosphere. These electrochemical industries use sodium chlorate or chlor-alkali as a reactor for water purification and paper bleaching processes in which hydrogen is produced as a by-product. The vented or flared hydrogen can be captured for use in the transportation sector.When considering a net zero energy community, the transportation energy sector is often viewed as independent from the building sector of the community. In this paper, the integration of transportation energy with a net zero energy community utilizing captured waste hydrogen from chlor-alkali plants is examined. Methods integrating the energy use in transportation using hydrogen to meet the community energy demands and to achieve net zero energy balance in a community, are discussed.

Understanding energy systems change in Canada: 1. Decomposition of total energy intensity

Between 1995 and 2010, the total energy intensity (E/GDP, PJ/Gross Domestic Product in 2002$) of the Canadian economy declined by 23% or −2.64MJ/$. To understand why, the Logarithmic Mean Divisia Index (LMD-I) method was used to decompose a large body of government statistical data supporting the observed E/GDP decline. The analysis shows that (a) 48% (1.27MJ/$) of the decline was associated with an inter-sector structural change in the economy (i.e. an increased contribution to the total GDP of the low energy-using commercial and institutional sector compared with the high energy-using manufacturing and heavy industry sectors); (b) 24% (0.62MJ/$) was attributed to the impact of the Canadian GDP growing faster than population; (c) 22% (0.58MJ/$) of the decline was associated with an overall decrease in business energy intensity. A deeper analysis of business sectors shows a positive impact of 0.4MJ/$ from increased energy intensity in the oil and gas sector, offset by a 0.98MJ/$ decline due to energy intensity declines in the other business sectors; (d) 6.3% (0.17MJ/$) of the decline was associated with an improvement in the energy intensity of households, mostly from residential energy use rather than personal transportation energy use. These results provide insights for policy makers regarding those aspects of the Canadian economy that contribute to, or work against, efforts to transform energy systems toward sustainability.

Influence of spatially dependent, modeled soil carbon emission factors on life‐cycle greenhouse gas emissions of corn and cellulosic ethanol

AbstractConverting land to biofuel feedstock production incurs changes in soil organic carbon (SOC) that can influence biofuel life‐cycle greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Estimates of these land use change (LUC) and life‐cycle GHG emissions affect biofuels' attractiveness and eligibility under a number of renewable fuel policies in the USA and abroad. Modeling was used to refine the spatial resolution and depth extent of domestic estimates of SOC change for land (cropland, cropland pasture, grassland, and forest) conversion scenarios to biofuel crops (corn, corn stover, switchgrass, Miscanthus, poplar, and willow) at the county level in the USA. Results show that in most regions, conversions from cropland and cropland pasture to biofuel crops led to neutral or small levels of SOC sequestration, while conversion of grassland and forest generally caused net SOC loss. SOC change results were incorporated into the Greenhouse Gases, Regulated Emissions, and Energy use in Transportation (GREET) model to assess their influence on life‐cycle GHG emissions of corn and cellulosic ethanol. Total LUC GHG emissions (g CO2eq MJ−1) were 2.1–9.3 for corn‐, −0.7 for corn stover‐, −3.4 to 12.9 for switchgrass‐, and −20.1 to −6.2 for Miscanthus ethanol; these varied with SOC modeling assumptions applied. Extending the soil depth from 30 to 100 cm affected spatially explicit SOC change and overall LUC GHG emissions; however, the influence on LUC GHG emission estimates was less significant in corn and corn stover than cellulosic feedstocks. Total life‐cycle GHG emissions (g CO2eq MJ−1, 100 cm) were estimated to be 59–66 for corn ethanol, 14 for stover ethanol, 18–26 for switchgrass ethanol, and −7 to −0.6 for Miscanthus ethanol. The LUC GHG emissions associated with poplar‐ and willow‐derived ethanol may be higher than that for switchgrass ethanol due to lower biomass yield.

Help or hindrance? The travel, energy and carbon impacts of highly automated vehicles

Experts predict that new automobiles will be capable of driving themselves under limited conditions within 5–10years, and under most conditions within 10–20years. Automation may affect road vehicle energy consumption and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in a host of ways, positive and negative, by causing changes in travel demand, vehicle design, vehicle operating profiles, and choices of fuels. In this paper, we identify specific mechanisms through which automation may affect travel and energy demand and resulting GHG emissions and bring them together using a coherent energy decomposition framework. We review the literature for estimates of the energy impacts of each mechanism and, where the literature is lacking, develop our own estimates using engineering and economic analysis. We consider how widely applicable each mechanism is, and quantify the potential impact of each mechanism on a common basis: the percentage change it is expected to cause in total GHG emissions from light-duty or heavy-duty vehicles in the U.S. Our primary focus is travel related energy consumption and emissions, since potential lifecycle impacts are generally smaller in magnitude. We explore the net effects of automation on emissions through several illustrative scenarios, finding that automation might plausibly reduce road transport GHG emissions and energy use by nearly half – or nearly double them – depending on which effects come to dominate. We also find that many potential energy-reduction benefits may be realized through partial automation, while the major energy/emission downside risks appear more likely at full automation. We close by presenting some implications for policymakers and identifying priority areas for further research.

New Aspects to Greenhouse Gas Mitigation Policies for Low Carbon Cities

Methane (CH4) is an important greenhouse gas emitted by vehicles. This study provides estimates of emissions of this important and often not well characterized greenhouse gas (GHG) emission related to transportation energy use. It aims to assist urban community planners and policymakers to prioritize and choose implementation strategies for low carbon cities. The paper focuses on emissions of CH4 from vehicles. Unlike emissions of CO2, which are relatively easy to estimate, emissions of CH4 are a function of many complex aspects of combustion dynamics and depend on the type of emission control systems used. In this context, they cannot be derived easily and instead must be determined through the use of published emission factors for each combination of fuel, end-use technology, combustion conditions, and emission control systems. Emissions of CH4 play a significant role with regards to the relative CO2–equivalent GHG emissions of the use of alternative transportation fuels, in comparison with the use of conventional fuels. By analyzing a database based on literature review this study analyzes all the factors affecting the creation of CH4 emissions from different vehicle types. Statistical analysis indicated “r” values ranging from 0.10 to 0.85 for all vehicles.

Moving beyond alternative fuel hype to decarbonize transportation

In the past three decades, government, industry and other stakeholders have repeatedly been swept up with the ‘fuel du jour’, claiming that a particular alternative fuel vehicle (AFV) technology can succeed in replacing conventional gasoline-powered vehicles. However, AFV technologies have experienced relatively little success, with fossil fuels still accounting for about 95% of global transport energy use. Here, using the US as a case study, we conduct a media analysis to show how society’s attention has skipped among AFV types between 1980 and 2013, including methanol, natural gas, plug-in electric, hybrid electric, hydrogen and biofuels. Although our results provide no indication as to whether hype ultimately has a net positive or negative impact on AFV innovation, we offer several recommendations that governments can follow to move past hype to support significant AFV adoption and displace fossil fuel use in the transportation sector. Alternative fuel technologies are crucial to decarbonize transport, but attention has shifted among options over time. This study presents an analysis of media, innovation and funding data for these different options and recommends actions to help move beyond hype to support technology adoption.

Energy for Road Passenger Transport and Sustainable Development: Assessing Policies and Goals Interactions

Development that is sustainable requires an operational, efficient and safe transportation system fueled by clean, low carbon, secure and affordable energy. The energy used in road passenger transport enables social and economic development and is the target of interventions to fight pressing urban environmental problems, energy security concerns and dangerous climate change. This review explores a systematic approach to describe interactions documented in the literature, between policies targeting energy use in road passenger transport to reduce petroleum consumption and greenhouse gas emissions and sustainable development goals. Essential, uncertain and limited interactions are mapped out as a result, their overview indicates that a full reconciliation between these policies and sustainability goals is not always attainable. The careful alignment and contextual examination of interactions between measures and goals as exemplified in this approach can help inform practical transport energy policy that better match an agenda for sustainable development.

Sustainable management and supply of natural and recycled aggregates in a medium-size integrated plant

The consumption of natural aggregates in civil engineering applications can cause severe environmental impacts on a regional scale, depleting the stock of bulk resources within a territory. Several methods can improve the environmental sustainability of the whole aggregates’ supply process, including natural and recycled aggregates’ productive chains, for instance promoting the use of recycled aggregates (RA). However, when quarrying and recycling activities are considered as stand-alone processes, also the RA supply chain may not be as sustainable as expected, due to the high environmental loads associated to transportation, if high distances from the production to the use sites are involved. This work gives some insights on the environmental impact assessment of the aggregates’ industry in the Italian context, through a comparative assessment of the environmental loads of natural and recycled aggregates’ productive chains. An integrated plant for the extraction of virgin aggregates and recycling of construction and demolition waste (C&DW) was analyzed as significant case study, with the aim to identify the influence of sustainable solutions on the overall emissions of the facility. A Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) approach was used, using site-specific data and paying particular attention on transportation-related impacts, land use, avoided landfill and non-renewable resources preservation. From this work it was possible to evaluate the influence of transportation and PV energy use on the overall environmental emissions of natural and recycled aggregates’ productive chains.

Integrating building and transportation energy use to design a comprehensive greenhouse gas mitigation strategy

Building and transportation sectors account for approximately 75% of CO2 emissions. A mitigation strategy that combines both renewable energy sources and adoption of all-electric vehicles (EVs) instead of conventional gasoline powered vehicles thus seems most promising. The desired outcome of this strategy cannot be achieved without taking into consideration human activities in building and transportation. This study compares the energy use in building and transportation, aiming to provide a proper approach for evaluating the effectiveness and possible CO2 emissions reductions of GHG mitigation strategies. The analysis of the collected data showed that on average each individual produced around 20lbs of CO2 per day, 62% of the total CO2 was emitted in transportation. The mitigation strategy including EVs powered by electricity generated from coal-fired power plants resulted in average CO2 emissions reductions of 3.7%. The mitigation strategy using the EVs powered by solar energy obtained from grid-tied solar panels have led to 12.2% CO2 emissions reductions per day (from 12.38lbs/day to 10.87lbs/day), and the strategy incorporating EVs with the off-grid source of power was the most successful strategy and resulted in an average CO2 emissions savings of 12.38lbs/day. This study also estimates the initial cost per pound of CO2 emissions reduction per day for each of the mitigation strategies.