Energy Source For Electric Vehicles Research Articles

Particle Swarm-Optimized Fuzzy Logic Energy Management of Hybrid Energy Storage in Electric Vehicles

A lithium-ion battery–ultracapacitor hybrid energy storage system (HESS) has been recognized as a viable solution to address the limitations of single battery energy sources in electric vehicles (EVs), especially in urban driving conditions, owing to its complementary energy features. However, an energy management strategy (EMS) is required for the optimal performance of the HESS. In this paper, an EMS based on the particle swarm optimization (PSO) of the fuzzy logic controller (FLC) is proposed. It aims to minimize battery current and power peak fluctuations, thereby enhancing its capacity and lifespan, by optimizing the weights of formulated FLC rules using the PSO algorithm. This paper utilizes the battery temperature as the cost function in the optimization problem of the PSO due to the sensitivity of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) to operating temperature variations compared to ultracapacitors (UCs). An evaluation of optimized FLC using PSO and a developed EV model is conducted under the Urban Dynamometer Driving Schedule (UDDS) and compared with the unoptimized FLC. The result shows that 5.4% of the battery’s capacity was conserved at 25.5 °C, which is the highest operating temperature attained under the proposed strategy.

Construction and ultrasonic inspection of the high-capacity Li-ion battery based on the MnO2 decorated by Au nanoparticles anode

Lithium (Li)-ion batteries have become one of the main energy sources for electric vehicles and energy storage systems, which puts forward higher requirements for the detection of battery state of health (SOH). The SOH of batteries is crucial for areas such as battery management and renewable energy storage. Accurately evaluating the SOH of batteries can optimize charging and discharging strategies and extend battery life. Therefore, accurately and effectively monitoring the SOH of Li batteries is of great significance. An ultrasonic testing technology has been proposed that can non-destructively test the Li battery SOH, enabling accurate judgment of batteries in poor or damaged conditions. Firstly, the hetero-structured MnO2-Au has been constructed as the anode for Li-ion batteries. MnO2-Au heterojunction enhances electronic conductivity and ion conductivity. The MnO2-Au has exhibited high specific capacity and superior rate performances, which can well satisfy the ultrasonic inspection of the battery. Then, the ultrasonic testing has been conducted on batteries with different ages. The results suggest that batteries with short circuits have the highest nonlinear coefficient, while batteries with short circuits after long cycles have the lowest nonlinear coefficient. The nonlinear coefficient of batteries with different charging and discharging states is in the middle.

EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES ON Li-ION BATTERY PACK FOR TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION ANALYSIS DURING FAST DISCHARGING AND VARIOUS AMBIENT TEMPERATURE CONDITIONS

Lithium-ion batteries are the primary energy source for electric vehicles (EVs), which were developed to address environmental issues and the lack of energy resources. The temperature is a key factor in Li-ion batteries which affects their degradation and life span. In this study, the thermal performance characteristics of a 4S2P Li-ion battery pack are analyzed according to the change in the environmental temperatures of 25°C, 40°C, and 60°C and the discharge rates of 0.5C, 1C, 2C, and 3C of the battery. In the experiment, the maximum temperature rises in the battery pack at 0.5C discharge rate is within the optimum operation range with respect to all tested ambient temperature conditions. Meanwhile, it is higher at an ambient temperature of 25°C than at ambient temperatures of 40°C and 60°C during high-current discharge (1C, 2C, and 3C) operations. The results prove that the environmental temperature of 40°C provides better thermal performance than 25°C and 60°C operating levels. Also, the temperature distribution between neighboring cells in the pack increases as the C-rate increases from 0.5C to 3C, and this nonuniformity causing high heat generation can lead to a performance reduction of the module. This article primarily proposed a correlation between heat transfer and ambient temperatures in terms of discharge rate. The correlation is significant when designing thermal management systems for battery-powered devices.

Enhancing Thermal Stability of Lithium-Ion Battery Separators with Sub-Micron Boehmite Coating

Recently, lithium-ion batteries have been increasingly used as energy sources for electric vehicles, and research has highlighted the need to improve the stability of these batteries. In this study, we propose a novel inorganic coating method that utilizes sub-micron boehmite particles as coating agents to enhance the thermal and mechanical stability of the battery separator. Sub-micron-sized boehmite was synthesized via hydrothermal synthesis, with the addition of a specific amount of finely pulverized crystalline boehmite as an additive. And then, porous polyolefin separator was made of 14 um thick fabric using a pilot film forming process. The coating slurry was made using an aqueous binder and was coated to a thickness of 4 um on one side of the separator. The direct effect of the boehmite coating layer on the improvement of thermal stability was evaluated by comparing the shrinkage behavior before and after the thermal stability test. Electrochemical characteristic analysis was performed using a pouch-type cell, with graphite as an anode and NCM as a cathode. After 100 cycles of charging and discharging at 1C, the capacity maintenance was about 98%, and the rate capability was 76% compared to 0.1C and 2C capability. In particular, the 0.1C capacity measured after 2 weeks in a 60°C oven showed excellent thermal stability with a retention rate of about 100%.

Adaptive Dynamic Surface Control With Disturbance Observers for Battery/Supercapacitor-Based Hybrid Energy Sources in Electric Vehicles

The underlying control in the hybrid energy source system (HESS) of an electric vehicle plays a pivotal role. Uncertainty is unavoidable in system modeling owing to variations in electrical parameters and unknown external disturbances, which inevitably deteriorate the control performance of the HESS. In this study, an innovative adaptive dynamic surface control with disturbance observers (ADSCDOB) is adopted as a control scheme for underlying tracking in the HESS to counteract the adverse effects and improve control accuracy. First, disturbance observers are designed by employing a nonlinear disturbance observer and an extreme learning machine approximator to estimate the mismatched and matched uncertainties. Subsequently, the proposed ADSCDOB scheme integrates the adaptive dynamic surface technique and second-order differentiators to achieve robust control, in which voltage/current references are obtained through the rule-based energy management strategy. The established ADSCDOB obviates the “differential explosion” problem and ensures that the closed-loop system is semi-globally and uniformly bounded. Comprehensive simulations and prototype experiments prove the effectiveness of the ADSCDOB, confirming its satisfactory performance in terms of a fast response, reduced error, and robust stability under hybrid driving conditions.

Rapid monitor of states of lithium-ion batteries through non-quasi-static electrochemical impedance spectroscopy and terminal voltage

As lithium-ion batteries are a primary energy source for electric vehicles, their accurate state-of-health (SOH) and state-of-charge (SOC) monitoring is crucial. The two battery states are directly linked to the battery impedances, which can be measured with electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). However, classical EIS testing is time-consuming due to the broadband frequency measurement and the full relaxation requirement of a battery. A non-quasi-static EIS is carried out in this study by implementing the test immediately after a short relaxation following the end of battery charging/discharging. With the measurement, we observe that the high-frequency and the subsequent partial medium-frequency impedances are almost independent of the relaxation period, while these impedances regularly change with the battery states. This suggests the feasibility of a concurrent estimation of SOH and SOC through utilizing the impedances within these ranges and the terminal voltage as the input to a Gaussian process regression model. We show that the input dimension can be lower than 14 and the measuring time required to acquire the input can be reduced to below 7 s. The root mean square errors of the SOH and SOC estimations are found to be less than 2.66% and 1.57%, respectively.

Thermal management and temperature uniformity enhancement of cylindrical lithium-ion battery pack based on liquid cooling equipped with twisted tapes

BackgroundThe technology of lithium-ion batteries is adopted as a brilliant energy source for electric vehicles because of its outstanding benefits, such as constant power, long shelf life, lightweight, fast and safe charging, etc. A channeled liquid cooling system is one of the forceful techniques in the thermal management of battery packs. MethodsA cooling system equipped with diverse configurations of twisted tapes is established for a battery module consisting of sixteen commercial ICR18650–26 J lithium-ion batteries. First, the effects of the specific design factor of twisted tapes are investigated. Then to improve the temperature uniformity of the module, nonuniform patterns of twisted tapes are introduced. Significant FindingsThe corresponding findings corroborate the effectiveness of using twisted tapes. It is found that the maximum battery temperature can be controlled at around 305 K when the number of twist pitches is seven. However, the results express that the performance changes are not noticeable for increasing this parameter by more than five. It is ascertained that the cooling system with nonuniform twisted tapes is superior to the conventional case. The temperature difference in the battery module is stabilized within 11.25 K by using the twisted tape having an intensified ratio of 1.5.

Nickel mining in Obi Island: problem or solution for mitigating climate change effects?

Climate change has become a global issue that threatens human life. According to Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), since 1850 there has been an increase in temperature and sea level so that small islands will sink. As the largest archipelagic country in the world, Indonesia is committed to reduce carbon emissions as a means for mitigating the effects of climate change. The current program is to replace fossil energy with renewable energy. Nickel is a mineral for basic materials to make batteries that can be used as an energy source for electric vehicles which are environmentally friendly. Indonesia has the world's largest nickel reserves and contributes to 37% of the world's total nickel production in 2021. One of the areas that produces nickel is Obi Island in North Maluku. Massive nickel production in this island has negative on environment as well as social-economic on local community. The purpose of this study is to analyse the profit and loss impact of nickel mining in Obi Island. Using qualitative descriptive method through library research this study shows that nickel mining is able to increase regional income but is accompanied by environmental degradation and increased social problems for the local people.

Passive balancing in battery management system for electrical vehicles

Due to the peak energy and power density, the battery is a leading energy source for electric vehicles. Among various battery chemistries, Li-ion batteries have emerged as serious competitors in the field of electric vehicles. The battery cells are connected in series or parallel to increase voltage and current in a battery pack for electric vehicle applications. The heart of a battery-operated electric vehicle is the battery control system. The series-connected cells in a battery pack must preserve each cell's original potential under ideal charging and discharging conditions. If the potential of connected cells is not balanced, the charging and discharging of cells in the pack will be affected, bringing up the issue of cells that are out of balance due to inherent and extrinsic factors. Using active and passive cell balancing techniques can solve this issue. The right cell balancing technique can shorten the battery pack's equalization time and enhance its ageing. This paper explains the parameters of a battery, the function of the BMS, and different cell balancing techniques for use in electric vehicle applications.

High-Performance Ni-Rich Cathodes through Precision Control for Electric Vehicle Batteries

Li-ion batteries (LIBs) become the main portable energy source for electric vehicles (EVs) owing to their high energy and power densities as compared to those of other forms of secondary batteries. As the overall performance and cost of LIBs are largely determined by the cathode material, recent research has heavily focused on developing high-capacity cathode materials. However, chasing high-energy-density without compromising service life is very challenging. Among the available cathode materials for LIBs, layered Li[Ni1-x-yCox(Mn or Al)y]O2 (NCM or NCA) is the material of choice owing to its high theoretical capacity of 275 mAh g−1. The demand for higher energy density at a lower cost has pushed the Ni content to approach 90% because Ni is in charge of energy density in NCM and NCA cathode. The inclusion of more Ni in the NCM and NCA cathodes has significant benefits in LIB energy density and cost, as it concomitantly reduces the content of expensive Co. However, the increase in Ni content sacrifices cycling and thermal stability due to the high reactivity of Ni. Such a trade-off between energy density and stability becomes increasingly severe with increasing Ni content. Capacity fading of Ni-rich NCM and NCA cathodes, especially above Ni 80%, largely originates from microcracking which exposes a large portion of the cathode interior to deleterious electrolyte attack. To suppress the development of microcracks on cathode materials, Ni-rich cathode materials should guarantee mechanical stability even in highly charged states. In this presentation, Ni-rich layered cathodes through precision control are presented. One approach is an optimization of both the crystal structure and primary particle morphology by introducing high valence ions. Another strategy is to develop concentration gradient (CG) cathodes with rod-shaped primary particles that are elongated along the radial direction. The CG cathodes are further optimized via high-valence ion doping thereby preserving the microstructure until the cathode attains optimal crystal structure via the reduction of cation mixing. These cathodes exhibit outstanding performance in long-term cycling tests.

The performance analysis of modified generic model for Lithium-ion batteries

Battery technology has been widely used in various applications such as electric vehicles, smart grids, renewable energy systems, and sustainable power applications in recent years. The type, rating, and operating characteristics of batteries vary from one application to another. For example, Electric Vehicles (EVs) need lightweight batteries capable of producing fast energy and withstanding frequent charge/discharge cycles. Renewable energy applications require batteries that can store large energy in the time of excessive electric power generation and can substitute renewable energy sources to supply power in times of non-generation. As batteries are an electro-chemical phenomenon and are generally expensive, it is essential to establish an effective battery model to analyze its behavior under different operating conditions. In this regard, this paper presents a comprehensive study of various battery modeling approaches widely used for the characterization of batteries employed as energy sources for electric vehicles. A simple modified generic battery model is developed and simulated for the ANR26650M1 Li-ion battery in a MATLAB-Simulink environment. The modified generic model includes a polarization voltage term to represent the open-circuit voltage accurately and the polarization resistance term is slightly modified. The model parameters are deduced from the data sheet provided by the battery manufacturers. The discharge curve obtained through simulation is validated with the one given in the datasheet.

Increasing Electric Bicycle Performance using Lithium Ferro Phospate Batteries with a Battery Management System

The depletion of fossil fuel sources and the increasing environmental pollution caused by the burning of motor vehicle fuels are major problems worldwide that need to be solved. One of the promising solutions to overcome energy security and environmental pollution is the use of electric vehicles. E-bikes are one of the most popular electric vehicles because of their many benefits. A valve-regulated lead acid battery (VRLA) is now the most common energy source for electric vehicles. It is heavy and unsafe for the user due to its poor energy density. Lithium ion batteries may be a feasible solution. One type of Li-ion battery that is environmentally friendly is lithium ferro phosphate (LFP). The potential that exists encourages researchers to conduct research and compare the performance of VRLA batteries with LFP batteries. The data retrieval method is carried out using the Arduino data logger application and is equipped with a microcontroller to read current and voltage. The test results prove that the LFP battery has good voltage stability. The distance that can be traveled is quite long, which is up to 50.16 km, because it is supported by a large capacity. On the other hand, VRLA can only travel 37.83 kilometers. Furthermore, the energy density of LFP batteries is great. The VRLA battery has a low energy density of 38.7 Wh/kg, whereas the LFP battery has a higher energy density of 117 Wh/kg, making it lighter and safer for users.

Numerical Simulation on Pressure Dynamic Response Characteristics of Hydrogen Systems for Fuel Cell Vehicles

A proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) is known as one of the most promising energy sources for electric vehicles. A hydrogen system is required to provide hydrogen to the stack in time to meet the flow and pressure requirements according to the power requirements. In this study, a 1-D model of a hydrogen system, including the fuel cell stack, was established. Two modes, one with and one without a proportion integration differentiation (PID) control strategy, were applied to analyze the pressure characteristics and performance of the PEMFC. The results showed that the established model could be well verified with experimental data. The anode pressure fluctuation with a PID control strategy was more stable, which reduced the damage to the fuel cell stack caused by sudden changes of anode pressure. In addition, the performance of the stack with the PID control mode was slightly improved. There was an inflection point for hydrogen utilization; the hydrogen utilization rate was higher under the mode without PID control when the current density was greater than 0.4 A/cm2. What is more, a hierarchical control strategy was proposed, which made the pressure difference between the anode and cathode meet the stack working requirements, and, more importantly, maintained the high hydrogen utilization of the hydrogen system.

A Rechargeable Aqueous Lithium-Air Battery with an Acetic Acid Catholyte Operated at High Pressure

Acidic aqueous lithium-air batteries are attractive candidates for use as energy sources in electric vehicles because of their high energy and power densities and ability to operate under ambient conditions. An aqueous lithium-air battery with an acetic acid catholyte has a high theoretical energy density of 1,478 Wh kg–1, and the reaction product is soluble in the catholyte. In this study, we have studied the cell performance of a Li/interlayer electrolyte/NASICON-type solid lithium-ion conductor/acetic acid catholyte/air electrode cell at high pressure and room temperature under air. The cell was successfully operated at 0.5 mA cm–2 and 0.2 MPa.

Analiza mogućnosti implementacije fotonaponskih sistema kao pomoćnog izvora energije u napajanju električnih vozila namijenjenih urbanim sredinama

The paper analyzes the possibilities of implementing a photovoltaic system as an additional energy source in electric vehicles. Electric vehicles have the ability to charge batteries via the power grid. A significant number of vehicles in urban areas serve as a daily means of transportation to go to work. Most of the time, vehicles are parked, which opens up opportunities for the use of solar radiation energy through conversion into electricity, and the use of that energy to recharge the built-in batteries and thus increase the range of movement of vehicles.

A Real-Time Simulator for an Innovative Hybrid Thermal Management System Based on Experimental Verification

The performance and efficiency of green energy sources in electric vehicles (EVs) are significantly affected by operation temperatures. To maintain the optimal temperatures of a hybrid energy system (HES), an innovative hybrid thermal management system (IHTMS) was designed. The IHTMS contains a coolant pump, a heat exchanger, a proportional valve for hybrid flow rates, five coolant pipes, and three electromagnetic valves to form two mode-switch coolant loops. A Matlab/Simulink-based simulator of the IHTMS was constructed by formulating a set of first-ordered dynamics of temperatures of coolant pipes and energy bodies using the theories of Newton’s law of cooling and the lumped-parameter technique. Parameters were majorly derived by measured performance maps and data from the experimental platform of the IHTMS. To properly manage the optimal temperatures, four control modes were designed for inner-loop form and outer-loop form. For the experimental platform to verify the simulator, two power supplies generated the waste heat of dual energy sources calculated by the driving cycle and vehicle dynamics. Simulation results show that the temperatures were controlled at their optimal ranges by proper mode/loop switch. With the inner-loop mechanism, the rise time of optimal temperature decreased 27.4%. The average simulation-experiment temperature error of the battery was 0.898 °C; the average simulation-experiment temperature error of the PEMFC was 4.839 °C. The IHTMS will be integrated to a real HES in the future.

Evaluating the lithium-ion battery recycling industry in an emerging economy: A multi-stakeholder and multi-criteria decision-making approach

Lithium-ion battery (LIB), a prime residual energy source for electric vehicles (EVs), entails a market showing exponential growth with the rising global push towards electric mobility. However, such an increase leaves us with ‘big battery waste problem’ as these LIBs approach their end-of-life (EoL). Moreover, despite the availability of technologies for complete recycling of used LIBs, the lack of authorized recycling facilities and poor policy framework would hinder sustainable mobility. This study focuses on a multi-stakeholder perspective in compiling and synthesizing the key barriers and enablers of LIB recycling within the PESTEL (political, economic, social, technological, environmental, and legal) framework. The barriers and enablers are identified using a systematic literature review and a 3-stage Delphi study on various experts from the LIB recycling industry in India. Grey theory is blended with DEMATEL (decision making trial and evaluation laboratory) technique to evaluate interdependencies among the constituting factors. It is followed by a comparative assessment that highlights the essence of different stakeholder perspectives. The results indicate inadequacy in recycling regulations in government policies and take-back schemes in the stakeholder business model as the most significant barrier and enabler, respectively. The current work proposes a decision-making framework defining multi-stakeholder roles for effective LIB recycling in an emerging economy.

A Review on the Feasibility of Deployment of Renewable Energy Sources for Electric Vehicles under Smart Grid Environment

Nowadays, Energy consumption in the field of transportation comes next to industrial consumption worldwide. If transportation is completely powered by renewable energy, the utilization of fossil fuels can be drastically reduced, which will result in a lesser amount of greenhouse gas emissions. Electric vehicles (EVs) can act as an alternative to make transportation pollution-free. Large-scale usage of EVs causes high electricity demand on the supply system. This problem can be overcome by utilizing renewable energy sources (RESs) for Electric Vehicle charging. Due to the unpredictability of RESs, coordinating EV charging with other loads and renewable generation is problematic. By using EVs as energy units, power fluctuations in the electric grid can be compensated. This paper presents a summary of recent research in the domain of integration of renewable energy sources with electric vehicles (EVs) under the smart grid environment. Electric vehicles-smart grid integrated systems face several issues related to communication, grid infrastructure and control in the future power system. Feasibility of integration of solar and wind energy systems with electric vehicles is discussed in section 2. The existing research articles in this area are classified into two based on the purpose: EVs integration into the electric grid and Vehicle to grid services. The function of V2G in the electricity market, as well as its management concerns, are investigated in section 3. Finally, the research gaps and future scope of incorporating electric vehicles with renewable energy sources and the Smart grid are highlighted.

Integrating Renewable Energy Sources in Electric Vehicles via Optimization Assisted Model

Integrating Renewable Energy Sources in Electric Vehicles via Optimization Assisted Model

Estimation of SOC Based on LSTM-RNN and Design of Intelligent Equalization Charging System

Lithium battery packs are the main driving energy source for electric vehicles. A battery pack equalization charging solution using a constant current source for variable rate charging is presented in this paper. The charging system consists of a main constant current source and independent auxiliary constant current sources. Auxiliary constant current sources are controlled by the battery management system (BMS), which can change the current rate of the corresponding single battery, and achieve full charging of each single cell in the series battery pack. At the same time, the state of charge (SOC) is regarded as time series data to establish a long short-term memory recurrent neural network (LSTM-RNN) model, and it is possible to obtain the single battery with lower capacity, so that the charging efficiency and battery pack consistency can be improved. The experimental results show that the open circuit voltage difference between the single cells is less than 50 mV after the charging of 20 strings of lithium battery packs by using this method, which achieve the purpose of equalization charging.