Energy-sensitive Detector Research Articles

Basis material decomposition in spectral CT using a semi-empirical, polychromatic adaption of the Beer–Lambert model

Following the development of energy-sensitive photon-counting detectors using high-Z sensor materials, application of spectral x-ray imaging methods to clinical practice comes into reach. However, these detectors require extensive calibration efforts in order to perform spectral imaging tasks like basis material decomposition. In this paper, we report a novel approach to basis material decomposition that utilizes a semi-empirical estimator for the number of photons registered in distinct energy bins in the presence of beam-hardening effects which can be termed as a polychromatic Beer–Lambert model. A maximum-likelihood estimator is applied to the model in order to obtain estimates of the underlying sample composition. Using a Monte-Carlo simulation of a typical clinical CT acquisition, the performance of the proposed estimator was evaluated. The estimator is shown to be unbiased and efficient according to the Cramér–Rao lower bound. In particular, the estimator is capable of operating with a minimum number of calibration measurements. Good results were obtained after calibration using less than 10 samples of known composition in a two-material attenuation basis. This opens up the possibility for fast re-calibration in the clinical routine which is considered an advantage of the proposed method over other implementations reported in the literature.

Time- and spatial-resolved XAFS spectroscopy in a single shot: new analytical possibilities for in situ material characterization.

A new concept that comprises both time- and lateral-resolved X-ray absorption fine-structure information simultaneously in a single shot is presented. This uncomplicated set-up was tested at the BAMline at BESSY-II (Berlin, Germany). The primary broadband beam was generated by a double multilayer monochromator. The transmitted beam through the sample is diffracted by a convexly bent Si (111) crystal, producing a divergent beam. This, in turn, is collected by either an energy-sensitive area detector, the so-called color X-ray camera, or by an area-sensitive detector based on a CCD camera, in θ-2θ geometry. The first tests were performed with thin metal foils and some iron oxide mixtures. A time resolution of lower than 1 s together with a spatial resolution in one dimension of at least 50 µm is achieved.

X-ray Compton scattering tomography

We lay the foundations for a new fast method to reconstruct the electron density in X-ray scanning applications using measurements in the dark field. This approach is applied to a type of machine configuration with fixed energy sensitive (or resolving) detectors, and where the X-ray source is polychromatic. We consider the case where the measurements in the dark field are dominated by the Compton scattering process. This leads us to a 2D inverse problem where we aim to reconstruct an electron density slice from its integrals over discs whose boundaries intersect the given source point. We show that a unique solution exists for smooth densities compactly supported on an annulus centred at the source point. Using Sobolev space estimates, we determine a measure for the ill posedness of our problem based on the criterion given by Natterer ("The mathematics of computerized tomography" SIAM 2001). In addition, with a combination of our method and the more common attenuation coefficient reconstruction, we show under certain assumptions that the atomic number of the target is uniquely determined. We test our method on simulated data-sets with varying levels of added pseudo random noise.

Data processing for soft X-ray diagnostics based on GEM detector measurements for fusion plasma imaging

The measurement system based on GEM – Gas Electron Multiplier detector is developed for X-ray diagnostics of magnetic confinement fusion plasmas. The Triple Gas Electron Multiplier (T-GEM) is presented as soft X-ray (SXR) energy and position sensitive detector. The paper is focused on the measurement subject and describes the fundamental data processing to obtain reliable characteristics (histograms) useful for physicists. So, it is the software part of the project between the electronic hardware and physics applications. The project is original and it was developed by the paper authors. Multi-channel measurement system and essential data processing for X-ray energy and position recognition are considered. Several modes of data acquisition determined by hardware and software processing are introduced. Typical measuring issues are deliberated for the enhancement of data quality. The primary version based on 1-D GEM detector was applied for the high-resolution X-ray crystal spectrometer KX1 in the JET tokamak. The current version considers 2-D detector structures initially for the investigation purpose. Two detector structures with single-pixel sensors and multi-pixel (directional) sensors are considered for two-dimensional X-ray imaging. Fundamental output characteristics are presented for one and two dimensional detector structure. Representative results for reference source and tokamak plasma are demonstrated.

Resonance effect in white X-ray magnetic diffraction of GdAl2

Using elliptically polarized white synchrotron radiation and an energy-sensitive detector, the 444 reflection from a single-crystal sample of the ferromagnetic compound GdAl2 magnetized along the scattering vector has been measured, and the asymmetry of the diffraction intensity upon the magnetization reversal has been studied in the X-ray energy range across the Gd L II edge. The dependence of the magnetic asymmetry on the scattering angle or on the X-ray energy is understood as the superposition of the sharp near-edge structure and the much broader component arising from the interference between the electric scattering and the resonant and nonresonant magnetic scattering, respectively. To interpret the experimental results, an analytical treatment of the magnetic asymmetry is developed, and in the course of the analysis it is pointed out that in general the pseudo-extinction of the Bragg reflection due to the dispersion effects can be utilized as a technique to raise the magnetic sensitivity in the X-ray scattering from ferromagnetic materials. The potential of an unconventional approach to the resonant X-ray scattering using a white beam, as is clearly demonstrated by the present experiment, is also discussed.

Laboratory-based X-ray reflectometer for multilayer characterization in the 15-150 keV energy band.

A laboratory-based X-ray reflectometer has been developed to measure the performance of hard X-ray multilayer coatings at their operational X-ray energies and incidence angles. The instrument uses a sealed-tube X-ray source with a tungsten anode that can operate up to 160 kV to provide usable radiation in the 15-150 keV energy band. Two sets of adjustable tungsten carbide slit assemblies, spaced 4.1 m apart, are used to produce a low-divergence white beam, typically set to 40 μm × 800 μm in size at the sample. Multilayer coatings under test are held flat using a vacuum chuck and are mounted at the center of a high-resolution goniometer used for precise angular positioning of the sample and detector; additionally, motorized linear stages provide both vertical and horizontal adjustments of the sample position relative to the incident beam. A CdTe energy-sensitive detector, located behind a third adjustable slit, is used in conjunction with pulse-shaping electronics and a multi-channel analyzer to capture both the incident and reflected spectra; the absolute reflectance of the coating under test is computed as the ratio of the two spectra. The instrument's design, construction, and operation are described in detail, and example results are presented obtained with both periodic, narrow-band and depth-graded, wide-band hard X-ray multilayer coatings.

Fat to muscle ratio measurements with dual energy x-ray absorbtiometry

Accurate measurement of the fat-to-muscle ratio in animal model is important for obesity research. An efficient way to measure the fat to muscle ratio in animal model using dual-energy absorptiometry is presented in this paper. A radioactive source exciting x-ray fluorescence from a target material is used to provide the two x-ray energies needed. The x-rays, after transmitting through the sample, are measured with an energy-sensitive Ge detector. Phantoms and specimens were measured. The results showed that the method was sensitive to the fat to muscle ratios with good linearity. A standard deviation of a few percent in the fat to muscle ratio could be observed with the x-ray dose of 0.001mGy.

Modeling and characterization of X-ray yield in a polychromatic, lab-scale, X-ray computed tomography system

A modular X-ray computed micro-tomography (µXCT) system is characterized in terms of X-ray yield resulting both from the generated X-ray spectrum and from X-ray detection with an energy-sensitive detector. The X-ray computed tomography system is composed of a commercially available cone-beam microfocus X-ray source and a modular optically-coupled-CCD-scintillator X-ray detector. The X-ray yield is measured and reported in units independent from exposure time, X-ray tube beam target current, and cone-beam-to-detector geometry. The polychromatic X-ray source is modeled as a broad Bremsstrahlung X-ray spectrum in order to understand the effect of the controllable parameters, that is, X-ray tube accelerating voltage and X-ray beam filtering. An approach is adopted which expresses the absolute number of emitted X-rays. The response of the energy-sensitive detector to the modeled spectrum is modeled as a function of scintillator composition and thickness. The detection efficiency model for the polychromatic X-ray detector considers the response of the light collection system and the electronic imaging array in order to predict absolute count yield under the studied conditions. The modeling approach is applied to the specific hardware implemented in the current µXCT system. The model׳s predictions for absolute detection rate are in reasonable agreement with measured values under a range of conditions applied to the system for X-ray microtomography imaging, particularly for the LuAG:Ce scintillator material.

Linatron Mi6, the X-Ray Source for Cargo Inspection

Since its inception in 2008, Linatron Mi6 has been the standard x-ray source for cargo inspection. It produces interlaced dual energy (6MV and 3.5MV) x-ray pulses that enable material discrimination scan in a single pass. Both pulse-to-pulse and longer term stability has been improved. With Linatron Mi6 as the x-ray source, it is now possible to achieve a continuous material discrimination scale, instead of only dividing materials into four classes: organic material, inorganic material, metals and high atomic metals. Other advanced material discrimination features include virtual layer peeling and trust rating. Energy sensitive imaging detectors can extend material discrimination in thin-object region. Although our Linatron Mi9 Linatron, which produces interlaced pulses of 9MV and 6MV x-ray pulses, provides even better material discrimination performance as well as better radiographic performance, it is not as widely used due to increased imaging system size and higher cost of safety shielding.

Design and Synthesis of Nanoparticle Contrast Agents for Spectral (color) X-Ray Imaging

ABSTRACTComputed tomography (CT) is an important tool in clinical diagnostic imaging enabling three-dimensional anatomic imaging at high spatial resolution with short scan times. However, X-ray attenuation differences in physiological fluids and soft tissues are relatively small, requiring the use of contrast agents to achieve sufficient imaging contrast. Recent advances in energy-sensitive X-ray detectors have made spectral (color) CT commercially feasible by unmixing the energy-dependent attenuation profile of different materials and will potentially enable molecular imaging in CT. In order to leverage these capabilities for diagnostic imaging, we are developing a spectral library of nanoparticle contrast agents with K-shell absorption edges spaced at least 10 keV apart. The objective of this study was to demonstrate the ability of spectral CT to simultaneously detect up to three different contrast agents and unmixed their signals to create color images. Gadolinium oxide (Gd), hafnium oxide (Hf) and gold (Au) were chosen due to exhibiting K-edges spaced 10-20 keV apart. Core-shell nanoparticles of each composition were synthesized by various methods to have a core diameter of 15-20 nm and were coated with a silica shell at least 2-4 nm in thickness to create a common platform for surface functionalization. The contrast agents were imaged in a soft tissue equivalent phantom using source-side method for spectral CT imaging. The source-side approach utilized monochromatic synchrotron radiation at the Argonne National Laboratory which, while not clinically applicable, served as a gold standard due to providing the highest spectral resolution. The nanoparticles designed for this study have broad applications in biomedical imaging due to their modular assembly, potential for enabling multi-modal detection, and surface functionalization with biomolecules (e.g., antibodies, peptides or enzymes) for active targeting.

Complementary coded apertures for 4-dimensional x-ray coherent scatter imaging.

X-ray scattering has played a key role in non-destructive materials characterization due to the material-specific coherent scattering signatures. In the current energy dispersive coherent scatter imaging systems, including selected volume tomography and coherent scatter computed tomography, each object voxel is measured at a single scatter angle, which suffers from slow acquisition time. The employment of coded apertures in x-ray scatter imaging systems improves the photon collection efficiency, making it promising for real time volumetric imaging and material identification. In this paper, we propose a volumetric x-ray scatter imaging system using a pair of complementary coded apertures: a coded aperture on the detector side introduces multiplexed measurement on an energy-sensitive detector array; a complementary source-side coded aperture selectively illuminates the object to decouple the ambiguity due to the increased parallelization for 4D imaging. The system yields the 1D coherent scattering form factor at each voxel in 3D. We demonstrate tomographic imaging and material identification with the system and achieve a spatial resolution ~1 cm and a normalized momentum transfer resolution, Δq/q, of 0.2.

Phase unwrapping in spectral X-ray differential phase-contrast imaging with an energy-resolving photon-counting pixel detector.

Grating-based differential phase-contrast imaging has proven to be feasible with conventional X-ray sources. The polychromatic spectrum generally limits the performance of the interferometer but benefit can be gained with an energy-sensitive detector. In the presented work, we employ the energy-discrimination capability to correct for phase-wrapping artefacts. We propose to use the phase shifts, which are measured in distinct energy bins, to estimate the optimal phase shift in the sense of maximum likelihood. We demonstrate that our method is able to correct for phase-wrapping artefacts, to improve the contrast-to-noise ratio and to reduce beam hardening due to the modelled energy dependency. The method is evaluated on experimental data which are measured with a laboratory Talbot-Lau interferometer equipped with a conventional polychromatic X-ray source and an energy-sensitive photon-counting pixel detector. Our work shows, that spectral imaging is an important step to move differential phase-contrast imaging closer to pre-clinical and clinical applications, where phase wrapping is particularly problematic.

Evaluation of Timepix silicon detector for the detection of 18F positrons

Timepix is an evolving energy and position sensitive pixel detector. It consists of a silicon detector (sensitive layer 300 μm thick) bump-bonded to the Timepix readout chip developed by the Medipix2 collaboration. This study aims to test the feasibility of using the acquired energy and position signals from Timepix for positron imaging.The signals of the commonly used fluorine-18 PET (positron emission tomography) tracer [18F]FDG were measured using Timepix operated both in single particle counting (Medipix) and in time over threshold (TOT) modes. The spatial resolution (SR) was measured using the absorber edge method (AEM) and was calculated from the over-sampled line spread function. The track of a positron in the Timepix detector was characterized as a cluster and the energy weighted centroid of each cluster was considered as readout for the position of the positron incidence. The measurement results were compared with theoretical predictions using Monte-Carlo simulations. In addition, imaging of a tissue slice of a mouse heart was analysed with reference to standard phosphor plate imaging.Our results show that the SR was improved from 177.1±4.1 μm (centroid without energy weighting) to 155.5±3.1 μm μm (centroid with energy weighting). About 12% enhancement of SR was achieved with energy information in TOT mode. The sensitivity of Timepix was 0.35 cps/Bq based on the measurements. The measuring background and the ratio between detected positrons and gamma rays were also evaluated and were found to be consistent with theoretical predictions. A small enhancement of image quality was also achieved by applying energy information to the data of the measured tissue sample.Our results show that the inclusion of energy information could slightly enhance the positron measurement compared to without energy information and the Timepix provides a high SR and sensitivity for positron detection. Thus, Timepix is a potentially effective tool for 2D positron imaging.

Snapshot molecular imaging using coded energy-sensitive detection

We demonstrate a technique for measuring the range-resolved coherent scatter form factors of different objects from a single snapshot. By illuminating the object with an x-ray pencil beam and placing a coded aperture in front of a linear array of energy-sensitive detector elements, we record the coherently scattered x-rays. This approach yields lateral, range, and momentum transfer resolutions of 1 mm, 5 mm, and 0.2 nm⁻¹, respectively, which is sufficient for the distinguishing a variety of solids and liquids. These results indicate a path toward real-time volumetric molecular imaging for non-destructive examination in a variety of applications, including medical diagnostics, quality inspection, and security detection.

Poster - Thur Eve - 14: The effect of fluence and detector size on image quality in multi-projection compton scatter tomography.

To assess how radiation dose and size of energy sensitive detectors affects image quality in multi-projection Compton scatter tomography. A Compton scatter tomography system was simulated in Maltab. The system consists of a point source generated x-ray fan beam and energy sensitive photon counting detectors, placed along a line with the source outside the periphery of the primary beam. Single scattered photons from a low contrast phantom simulating breast tissues were simulated. Simulation parameters are dose-limited and closely matched to typical breast CT. Poisson distributed noise was added to simulate quantum noise. We have successfully reconstructed electron density images in a clinical fan-beam breast CT system, in the presence of noise. The reconstruction illustrates accurate spatial alignment of the structures of interest in the phantom. The increase in MSE due to noise was ∼11%. The optimal detector size of 2 × 2 mm2 is a trade off between the increased noise, that is present when smaller detector sizes are used, and the blurring of the image that occurs as larger detectors are employed. For breast CT dose of 4-12 mGy, the optimal detector size for a Compton scatter reconstruction using 360 projections and 1000 eV energy resolution was found to be 2 × 2 mm2 . The ability to visualize large low contrast (9%) and small (2 mm diameter) high contrast objects was demonstrated.

Spectral CT imaging of vulnerable plaque with two independent biomarkers

The purpose of this paper is to investigate the feasibility of a novel four-material decomposition technique for assessing the vulnerability of plaque with two contrast materials spectral computer tomography (CT) using two independent markers: plaque's inflammation and spotty calcification. A simulation study was conducted using an energy-sensitive photon-counting detector for k-edge imaging of the coronary arteries. In addition to detecting the inflammation status, which is known as a biological marker of a plaque's vulnerability, we use spotty calcium concentration as an independent marker to test a plaque's vulnerability. We have introduced a new method for detecting and quantifying calcium concentrations in the presence of two contrast materials (iodine and gold), calcium and soft tissue background. In this method, four-material decomposition was performed on a pixel-by-pixel basis, assuming there was an arbitrary mixture of materials in the voxel. The concentrations of iodine and gold were determined by the k-edge material decomposition based on the maximum likelihood method. The calibration curves of the attenuation coefficients, with respect to the concentrations of different materials, were used to separate the calcium signal from both contrast materials and different soft tissues in the mixtures. Three different materials (muscle, blood and lipid) were independently used as soft tissue. The simulations included both ideal and more realistic energy resolving detectors to measure the polychromatic photon spectrum in single slice parallel beam geometry. The ideal detector was used together with a 3 cm diameter digital phantom to demonstrate the decomposition method while a more realistic detector and a 33 × 24 cm2 digital chest phantom were simulated to validate the vulnerability assessment technique. A 120 kVp spectrum was generated to produce photon flux sufficient for detecting contrast materials above the k-edges of iodine (33.2 keV) and gold (80.7 keV). By performing simulations on a 3 cm diameter digital phantom, we successfully identified four materials that were simultaneously present in the mixture at different proportions and in multiple locations on the phantom. Quantitative analysis with a chest digital phantom showed that the results for iodine, gold and calcium were highly correlated with the known concentrations. The analysis revealed a potentially powerful technique for assessing a plaque's vulnerability with two independent markers. High correlation and low relative errors between calculated and known materials’ concentrations showed that the method is feasible. This technique can potentially have a high clinical impact.

TH‐A‐213CD‐08: Spectrography Using a Marchesini Algorithm

Purpose: Recently, ‘ankylography’ was proposed to perform a 3D reconstruction from a single exposure of a monochromatic radiation beam. This approach was very attractive to reveal structures such as complex proteins that can be glimpsed only once before they are destroyed by the high‐intensity beam. However, the solution is neither unique nor stable in general. The purpose of this work is to solve that problem from one or two spectral views, which is referred to as ‘spectrography’. Methods: In contrast to ‘ankylography’, we acquire polychromatic diffractive views with energysensitive detectors. For example, a spectrographic system may consist of two spectral imaging chains perpendicular to each other. As a result, sufficiently many Ewald spheres can be simultaneously measured in the Fourier space for 3D reconstruction. To evaluate the performance of spectrography, the hybrid input‐output algorithm is implemented for phase retrieval and improved with a subspace saddle‐point optimization technique proposed by Marchesini. Results: A 32X32X32 Shepp‐Logan phantom (symmetric with respect to the z axis) is employed to demonstrate the feasibility of the proposed spectrography scheme. Extensive numerical tests are conducted in different configurations and have produced promising results. When the radiation waves span an infinite spectrum, exact results can be reconstructed without any additional constraint. When the spectrum becomes narrower, the solution becomes gradually less stable. Conclusions: Spectrography overcomes the non‐uniqueness and instability of ‘ankylography’. This approach has an ultrafast imaging speed for potential applications such as drug designs.

Rotational Cooling of HD+ by Superelastic Collisions with Electrons

Rotational cooling of HD+ by superelastic collisions (SEC) with electrons was observed at the Heidelberg test storage ring by merging a beam of rotationally hot HD+ ions with an electron beam at zero relative energy. Neutral fragments resulting from DR events were recorded at different electron densities using a high resolution imaging detector and a large-area, energy sensitive detector. The data allowed to deduce the time dependence of the population of three groups of rotational angular momentum states J built on the vibrational ground state of the ion together with the corresponding DR rate coefficients. The latter are found to be (statistical uncertainties only) ⟨α⟩0,1,2 = 3.8(1), ⟨α⟩3,4 = 4.0(2), and ⟨α⟩5,6,7 = 9.0(1.3) in units of 10−8 cm3/s, in reasonable agreement with the average values derived within the MQDT approach. The time evolution of the population curves clearly reveals that rotational cooling by SEC takes place, which can be well described by using theoretical SEC rate coefficients obtained by combining the molecular R-matrix approach with the adiabatic nuclear rotation approximation. We verify the ΔJ = −2 coefficients, which are predicted to be dominant as opposed to the ΔJ = −1 coefficients and to amount to (1 − 2) · 10−6 cm3/s, to within 30%.

PRECIX, Robotic System for Residual Stress Analysis by X-Ray Diffraction

In the last years, a new residual stress analysis system by X-ray diffractions has been developed by CETIM and INEL companies. This system called PRECIX is based on an industrial 6 axis robot. The technological performance is, like a 4 circle goniometer, to set together at the end of the sixth axes an x-ray source with a conventional size X-ray source, energy and position sensitive linear detector and an embedded long distance positioning system. PRECIX is an all-in-one system including all electrical and electronic items to perform residual stress analysis. This paper presents PRECIX in detail with a contactless positioning system, a new software getting a fully transparent utilisation for the users. Internal round-robin analysis with external reference samples and different geometries parts performed are presented to compare PRECIX results and other already validated X-ray diffraction systems.

Bulk sensitive x-ray absorption spectroscopy free of self-absorption effects

We demonstrate a new method of x-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) that is bulk sensitive, like traditional fluorescence yield measurements, but is not affected by self-absorption or saturation effects. This measure of XAS is achieved by scanning the incident photon energy through an absorption edge and using an energy sensitive photon detector to measure the partial fluorescence yield (PFY). The x-ray emission from any element or core-hole excitation that is not resonant with the absorption edge under investigation is selected from the PFY. It is found that the inverse of this PFY spectrum, which we term inverse partial fluorescence yield (IPFY), is linearly proportional to the x-ray absorption cross-section without any corrections due to saturation or self-absorption effects. We demonstrate this technique on the Cu L and Nd M absorption edges of the high-Tc cuprate LNSCO by measuring the O K PFY and comparing the total electron yield, total fluorescence yield and IPFY spectra.