Energy Policy Objectives Research Articles

The diffusion of energy technologies. Evidence from renewable, fossil, and nuclear energy patents

Technology innovation is widely recognised as a critical means in tackling climate change and fulfilling energy policy objectives. The objective of this paper is twofold: first, to provide a descriptive analysis of innovation in energy technology across countries and sectors and over time; and second, to explore the determining factors of patented knowledge diffusion of energy technologies by distinguishing between renewables and other energy patents, i.e., fossil and nuclear patents) thorough a regression analysis. The data employed in this paper consists of an original database on renewables and other energy patents applied by firms in the period 1990–2015 and contained in PATSTAT. By drawing on patent citations as an indicator of knowledge diffusion and focusing on characteristics extracted from patent documents, a set of econometric models is estimated. Our results show that those patents containing more citations to previous scientific literature and patents attain greater diffusion. Joint patents with other firms or universities exert a negligible effect on technology regarding renewables. Co-ownership with universities has a negative effect on the diffusion of other types of energy technology. Several policy implications can be determined from our results: for example, the justification for policies oriented towards enhancing the incorporation of scientific knowledge and co-inventorship in energy innovation.

Ocena wyzwań stojących przed polskim rynkiem energii z punktu widzenia współczesnych wymiarów bezpieczeństwa energetycznego

The goal of this article is to outline and to analyse the key challenges to be faced by the Polish energy market, as it is only at the beginning of the energy transition process. The dynamics of energy policy adaptation process to the challenges of the energy security dimensions, in the face of the energy and climate policy set by the European Union and the expected transformation goals, may cause the growth of the energy security deficit both on a national and regional scale. Given the centralized model of energy infrastructure management, reliance of domestic generation capacity on conventional sources and insufficient development of cross-border networks, Poland is particularly exposed to a security deficit related to the transformation of its energy system, which may also negatively affect other countries in the East- Central Europe region. Using program documents and sector analyses, the article analyses possible strategies for ensuring energy security, setting the issues in the context of the specificity of the Polish energy sector and opportunities for development of regional cooperation between Central and Eastern European countries. As a result, the article reveals an assessment which shows an insufficient recognition by Poland both the external and internal factors determining the pace and direction of energy modernization, as well as a failure to adapt energy policy objectives to the specifics of low-carbon energy sources and the potential provided for by regional energy markets.

Prospects for Russian Energy Exports in the Conditions of Implementing International Climate Policy Measures.

—The article examines two scenarios for the development of the world energy sector. According to the first, all countries are supposed to meet the objectives of the current energy and climate policy, and in it the world demand for hydrocarbons for 2018–2035 is growing by 10%; according to the second scenario, it is additionally assumed that all countries will achieve Nationally Determined Contributions to the Paris Agreement, as a result of which the world consumption of hydrocarbons may decrease by 4%. Arguments are given supporting Russia’s ability to increase the export of hydrocarbons to foreign markets in both scenarios, at least in the next decade. In view of this, measures for intensifying the export of Russian hydrocarbons seem appropriate but the question arises about the rational use of generated income for the purpose of ensuring sustainable growth of the Russian economy and its regions.

A scalable life cycle assessment of alternating and direct current microgrids in office buildings

Microgrids integrating local renewable energy sources at low-voltage level show promising potentials in realizing a reliable, efficient, and clean supply of electricity. Further improvements are expected when such a microgrid is operated based on direct current (dc) instead of alternating current (ac) infrastructure for power distribution commonly in use today. Our study aims to systemically quantify the gap between environmental impacts of microgrids at building level using the case study of power distribution within office buildings. For this purpose, a scalable comparative life cycle assessment (LCA) is conducted based on a technical bottom-up analysis of differences between ac and dc microgrids. Particularly, our approach combines the micro-level assessment of required power electronic components with the macro-level requirements for daily operation derived from a generic grid model. The results indicate that the environmental impacts of employed power electronics are substantially reduced by operating a microgrid based on dc power distribution infrastructure. Our sensitivity analyses show that efficient dc microgrids particularly lead to savings in climate change impact emissions. In addition, our study shows that the state-of-the-art scaling rules of power electronics currently used in LCAs leads to inaccurate results. In contrast, the proposed methodology applies a more technical approach, which enables a detailed analysis of the environmental impacts of power electronic components at system level. Thus, it provides the foundation for an evaluation criterion for a comprehensive assessment of technological changes within the framework of energy policy objectives.

Energy Security in Turbulent Times Towards the European Green Deal

This article presents a theoretical approach to energy security. It incorporates the concept of governing through turbulence as both a response to crisis onset and a source of long-term policy adaptation. The article applies this framework to an empirical analysis of the energy and climate policy of the EU through a review of policy documents in the period between 1995 and 2020. The article presents the evolution in the conceptualization of energy security in EU policy from a narrow definition restricted to characteristics of energy supply to an expanded conception that integrates additional elements from associated policy areas. The article argues that the European Green Deal represents the culmination of this process and concludes that the convergence of energy and climate policy objectives reinforces the trend towards the widened conceptual scope of energy security.

Managing the energy trilemma in the Philippines

BackgroundThe transition to an energy mix with lower carbon emissions is hampered by the existence of the so-called Energy Trilemma. The primary consequence is a trade-off between various objectives of energy policy, e.g., equity and sustainability. This conflict can lead to policy gridlock if policymakers are unable to prioritize the goals. This paper proposes a framework and methodology to manage the trilemma by applying methods related to multi-criteria decision-making in order to assign weights to the various components of the trilemma.ResultsFollowing the International Energy Agency (IEA), an expanded concept of energy security is adopted and translates to a version of the trilemma different from that of the World Energy Council. This study takes into account autarky, price, supply, and carbon emissions. The values of these variables are generated by a software called PLEXOS and are incorporated in a welfare function. Trade-offs and complementarities among the four variables are taken into account by the equations in the PLEXOS model. Meanwhile, weights for each of the components of the trilemma are obtained using the Analytical Hierarchy Process. The experts interviewed for this exercise are considered hypothetical heads of the Philippine Department of Energy (DOE).ConclusionTwo scenarios were compared: a market-based simulation and one where a carbon-tax was imposed. As expected, the carbon-tax leads to a fall in the level of carbon emissions but a rise in the cost of electricity. Because the demand for electricity has a higher price elasticity among lower income classes, the carbon-tax will worsen equity. Attempting to resolve the conflict among the goals of energy policy is difficult leading to a possible gridlock. Policy options can, however, be ranked using the values generated by the welfare function. The ranking clearly depends on the preference or priorities of the hypothetical head of the DOE but at least a decision could be reached. In this manner, trade-offs are measured and the trilemma can be managed even if it is not resolved.

Exploring deep decarbonization pathways for Argentina

To align near term action with a deep decarbonization objective by 2050, a long term low-greenhouse gas emissions development strategy is needed and involves drastic changes to the energy system and the AFOLU sectors. To help move forward the policy debate in this direction, this paper explores deep decarbonization pathways for the country until 2050 which break with existing more conservative national scenarios. It uses a combined qualitative-quantitative deep decarbonization pathway method based on the complementarity between exploratory storylines and the quantification of pathways based on linked energy-economy models. The built pathways show how deep decarbonization could be reached in Argentina along with other economic development goals and through contrasted possible routes all involving significant changes to the energy and AFOLU sectors. Remarkably, afforestation stands out as a key sectorial measure for reaching DDP. We contrast two alternative DDP Scenarios with a BAU one with specific focus on CO2 emissions, with emphasis on energy sector demand and supply alternatives. Many of the energy initiatives proposed for the BAU scenario were maintained but increased in ambition and many others were incorporated only in these deep decarbonization scenarios. While the HardPath proposes and requires natural gas use - with CO2 capture and storage - the Enlighten scenario proposes replacing it by hydro-nuclear energy. Finally, in none of the DDP scenarios is the export of natural gas proposed as an explicit energy policy objective, since little space is considered in external markets for fossil fuels, within the framework of a global action aimed at decarbonization.

EU ENERGY AND CLIMATE POLICIES: CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR POLAND

Along with the observed in the second half of the 20th century progressing climate change and accelerating greenhouse gas emissions levels (GHGgreenhouse gases), the European Commission (EC) actively started to act, both internally and globally, against these adverse changes. This paper presents the current energy and climate policy of the European Union resulting from the long-term strategy based on developing low-carbon economy, and analyses its influence on energy transformation of the Polish economy. It contains results of analyses and assessments of the implementation process of energy and climate policy in the economy of Poland as an EU member, economic restructuring and it indicates challenges connected with the practical aspects of EU energy policy objectives implementation in the near future. The analysis is based on literature of the subject, EU strategic programming documents relating to the strategy of developing low-carbon economy in the EU, those relating to energy and climate policies, legal acts, reports and industry publications as well as Polish background documents and regulations. The analysis concerns the period between 2004 and 2017 and contains actual data obtained from EUROSTAT and GUS (Statistics Poland).

When tensions become conflicts: wind turbine policy implementation and development in the Netherlands

Governments all over the world experience institutional conflicts in transforming their fossil-based energy system into a more renewable one. Between national, regional, and local tiers of government tensions rise on meeting renewable energy objectives. Under the institutional arrangement of subsidiarity, decisions on renewable energy policy objectives are taken on the international level, while the implementation of policy increasingly becomes a local responsibility. In this paper, we use an institutional framework to analyze the tensions in interactions between tiers of governments on four cases of Dutch wind energy policy implementation. The analysis offers insights into how tensions emerge in top-down wind energy policy implementation in the Netherlands. Within the four cases, tensions between government tiers are found, serving to constrain local tiers of government to implement local policy and object to top-down development. The results indicate that local issues aren’t sufficiently addressed in higher-tier government policies.

Developing a system dynamics model to study the impact of renewable energy in the short- and long-term energy security

This study discusses the impact that the share of renewable energy (RE) in the energy mix for total primary energy supply and electricity generation has on Malaysia's short and long-term energy security (ES). Three key dimensions of the ES of Malaysia have been studied thoroughly from the existing body of work to extract the indicators and their causal relation with each other. The system dynamics approach of modelling has been implemented to quantitatively analyse the impact on the relevant energy security indicators. The results are optimistic towards the increase in the share of RE to ensure both short and long-term ES through an increase in production to reserve ratio, decrease in energy dependency, and import in the long run. The energy policy structure needs to incline more towards diversification of energy sources to ensure that RE holds a major share in the energy mix as per the current energy policy objectives. This approach of modelling ES can be critical towards future policy design through consolidated data and evidence. This research aims to facilitate the nation's policymakers to dwell upon the need for separate ES policy drafts. The next stage of this research would involve the stakeholders to collect and validate the model.

Power-to-Gas, Hydrogen, and a Spotlight on New York's Emerging Climate and Energy Policy

This paper examines the role of law and regulation in advancing technology-based energy decarbonization options such as hydrogen compatible networks and power-to-gas (P2G) in the context of New York’s energy and climate change mitigation goals. By exemplifying the potential of P2G and hydrogen, it underscores the need for a more comprehensive legal and regulatory framework that (i) reflects the peculiarities of gas and electricity systems (on the one hand) and (ii) facilitates a more effective and integrated energy decarbonization pathway (on the other hand). Hydrogen is an energy carrier with a significant potential to deliver zero and low-carbon energy depending on how it is produced. Also, when combined with oxygen in a fuel cell, hydrogen produces heat and electricity with only water vapor as a by-product. It has been used for several years in bespoke applications in the aeronautics, industrial, and transportation sectors. About ten million metric tons of hydrogen is currently produced in the US every year, and ninety-five percent of which is via centralized reforming of natural gas (i.e. steam methane reformation (SMR) and known as “Blue Hydrogen”) used mostly in petroleum refining and ammonia industries. Other modes of utilization include fuel cell vehicles, metals refining, and synthetic natural gas production. Notably, the P2G process leads to the production of “green hydrogen” by using electricity that would otherwise be curtailed or lost, from variable renewable energy (VRE) sources such as solar and wind. Such VRE sourced energy can be used to split water into its hydrogen and oxygen components. The ‘green hydrogen’ process is becoming increasingly relevant to the issues of (i) decarbonization of gas and electricity networks; and (ii) solving the ‘curtailment’ ‘intermittency’ and ‘storage’ challenge in an energy system where renewables are gradually playing a larger role. It may also be key to facilitating the integration of a growing share of VREs in existing networks and in the same vein helping to avoid the ‘stranded assets’ dilemma faced by operators of natural gas pipeline and storage networks which can be compatible with hydrogen or synthetic methane produced as a result. Law and regulation provide a facilitative means through which relevant institutions and operators can work towards decarbonization and develop the requisite technology-based solutions while addressing the energy policy challenges created by the increasing role of VREs. Such considerations are even more relevant for a state such as New York. Even though the state’s Clean Energy Standard revised in 2019 requires 100% carbon-free electricity by 2040; in 2019, 29% of New York's in-state generation came from renewable sources. One-third of its utility-scale net generation came from in-state nuclear power plants that are scheduled to be decommissioned soon, while it was the sixth-largest natural gas consumer in the US, and three in five households used natural gas for home heating. The emerging energy decarbonization issues can be met if, among other things, law and regulation are viewed from a functional lens. In this regard, ‘regulation’ is considered as part of a legal framework that is instrumentalist in orientation with the aim of pursuing defined energy policy objectives which typically comprise of ensuring (i) secure and reliable supplies, (ii) sustainability while protecting the environment, and (iii) ensuring that costs and rates are just and reasonable both for the suppliers and consumers. The (ii) dimension is crucial in a carbon-constrained world. Thus, the paper will consider these highlighted issues and in Part II discuss the growth and challenges with VREs in the US energy mix and then highlight potential role(s) for hydrogen and P2G as an example of innovative technology-based decarbonization solution as well as a means of efficiently integrating growing VREs in electricity context with natural gas networks. Part III will examine the regulatory issues in the regulation of gas and electricity systems in a carbon-constrained world and the challenges and potential for decarbonization by deploying hydrogen and P2G. Part IV examines New York’s emerging climate and energy regulation framework and points out the possible issues with deploying P2G and hydrogen in the state. The paper concludes by highlighting that in the pathways to decarbonization the overarching objective in determining how and what to regulate should be ‘curbing greenhouse gas emissions’. It also underscores the need to develop an integrated policy and regulatory framework that can enhance the required technologies and energy systems in the path towards decarbonization.

Energy Policy Concerns, Objectives and Indicators: A Review towards a Framework for Effectiveness Assessment

This work presents a review that aims to characterize the policy evaluation practices regarding the public policies on energy, with a focus on the metrics: concerns, objectives, and indicators. As key novelty, emphasis was put into finding attributes and metrics that can be used to assess effectiveness, not only efficacy or efficiency. The concerns and objectives were organized into four categories: Institutional, Environmental, Economic, and Social. For every category, detailed and condensed concerns were identified. It was attempted to find indicators for every condensed concern, which resulted in 15 core indicators.

Topical Issues of the Improvement of Legal Regulation in the Sphere of Subsoil Use

This article examines issues pertaining to the improvement of the legal regulation of subsoil use relations in the Russian Federation. It contains specific proposals on the improvement of subsoil use law. The purpose of the legal regulation of subsoil use relations shall be enshrined in the Russian Law “On Subsoil” according to the objectives of the state energy policy for subsoil use and state subsoil fund management. The Law “On Subsoil” needs to reflect the subsoil use goals of the state described in Russia’s Energy Strategy until 2035. It seems reasonable to include a section containing basic terms and definitions used in the subsoil legislation into the Law “On Subsoil”. It is important to make sure the Law “On Subsoil” contains a rule stating that a license agreement is an integral and mandatory part of a license to help streamline the legal regulation of subsoil use licensing. It is advisable to reinforce the Russian Law “On Subsoil” and codify state control and regulation principles.

Актуальные вопросы совершенствования правового регулирования в сфере недропользования

This article examines issues pertaining to the improvement of the legal regulation of subsoil use relations in the Russian Federation. It contains specific proposals on the improvement of subsoil use law. The purpose of the legal regulation of subsoil use relations shall be enshrined in the Russian Law “On Subsoil” according to the objectives of the state energy policy for subsoil use and state subsoil fund management. The Law “On Subsoil” needs to reflect the subsoil use goals of the state described in Russia’s Energy Strategy until 2035. It seems reasonable to include a section containing basic terms and definitions used in the subsoil legislation into the Law “On Subsoil”. It is important to make sure the Law “On Subsoil” contains a rule stating that a license agreement is an integral and mandatory part of a license to help streamline the legal regulation of subsoil use licensing. It is advisable to reinforce the Russian Law “On Subsoil” and codify state control and regulation principles.

Environmental, exergetic and economic tradeoffs of catalytic- and fast pyrolysis-to-renewable diesel

This paper compares the cost and life cycle environmental performance of renewable diesel produced from upgraded catalytic fast pyrolysis (CFP) and fast pyrolysis (FP) bio-oils produced from forest residues. Integrating zeolite catalyst into the pyrolysis reactor in CFP requires upgrading in one catalytic hydrocracking step, whereas FP requires upgrading by multiple catalytic hydrotreating and hydrocracking steps, raising capital costs. The FP system considers hydrogen production from co-produced biochar, further raising capital costs but eliminating the large external hydrogen need. Despite lower capital costs, due to higher operating costs from catalyst replacement and purchased hydrogen, the estimated minimum selling price of CFP fuel ($2/L) is greater than FP fuel ($1.68/L). Utilities, hydrogen and catalyst contributions to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, exergy and annual cost are sizeable for CFP. However, GHG emissions for CFP (−72 to 32 g CO2e/MJ) are low and negative when considering credits for biochar due to a high biochar to fuel product ratio (2:1). In contrast, FP with catalytic upgrading maintains a high biofuel yield and low GHG emissions (8–13 g CO2e/MJ) that meet energy policy objectives with more favorable economics compared to CFP. Neither fuel is cost competitive with petroleum-diesel even with renewable fuel credits.

Economic Comparison Between a Stand-Alone and a Grid Connected PV System vs. Grid Distance

The limitation of fossil fuel uses and GHG (greenhouse gases) emissions reduction are two of the main objectives of the European energy policy and global agreements that aim to contain climate changes. To this end, the building sector, responsible for important energy consumption rates, requires a significant improvement of its energetic performance, an obtainable increase of its energy efficiency and the use of renewable sources. Within this framework, in this study, we analysed the economic feasibility of a stand-alone photovoltaic (PV) plant, dimensioned in two configurations with decreasing autonomy. Their Net Present Value at the end of their life span was compared with that of the same plant in both grid-connected and storage-on-grid configurations, as well as being compared with a grid connection without PV. The analysis confirms that currently, for short distances from the grid, the most suitable PV configuration is the grid-connected one, but also that the additional use of a battery with a limited capacity (storage on grid configuration) would provide interesting savings to the user, guaranteeing a fairly energetic autonomy. Stand-alone PV systems are only convenient for the analysed site from distances of the order of 5 km, and it is worth noting that such a configuration is neither energetically nor economically sustainable due to the necessary over-dimensioning of both its generators and batteries, which generates a surplus of energy production that cannot be used elsewhere and implies a dramatic cost increase and no corresponding benefits. The results have been tested for different latitudes, confirming what we found. A future drop of both batteries’ and PV generators’ prices would let the economic side of PV stand-alone systems be reconsidered, but not their energetic one, so that their use, allowing energy exchanges, results in being more appropriate for district networks. For all PV systems, avoided emissions of both local and GHG gases (CO2) have been estimated.

Surplus forest biomass – The cost of utilisation through optimised logistics and fuel upgrading in northern Sweden

In order to achieve a net zero emission economy by 2045, Sweden’s inland biomass resources are under examination. Large amounts of forest biomass in the north of the country are not utilised. In this study, resource mapping of surplus forest biomass, (logging residues, tree stumps and mill by-products) is carried out according to ecological harvesting restrictions to determine the annual potential of this resource. Using a network of terminals, optimised supply chains are used to determine the cost of feedstock supply and upgrading of biomass to value-added torrefied pellets. The results indicate that the total biomass surplus is 5.75 Mt (dry mass), representing a forested procurement area half the size of Sweden (224 500 km2). The surplus represents two per cent of Sweden’s annual energy consumption and 60 % of its coal and coke use. Aggregation of the existing terminal network results in 274 to 1611 kt of biomass (dry mass) supplied to ten terminals. Supply and upgrading costs at the terminals reflect a trade-off between the size of procurement area and the scale of upgrading; a large plant capacity corresponds to a low upgrading cost but a large supply cost and vice versa. The lowest supply cost is 79 € t−1 (dry mass) of feedstock and the upgrading capacity ranges from 86 to 1310 kt (dry mass). Utilisation of the surplus would require an effective energy cost range of 27–37 € MWh−1 exclusive of delivery cost to the end user and operational profits – corresponding to a minimum torrefied pellet price of 131 € t−1. Though much higher than other solid fuels, the energy price is comparable to that of natural gas. The results of this study have importance for legislation supporting EU and Swedish energy policy objectives.

Renewable energy community and the European energy market: main motivations

With the implementation of the EU's key climate and energy policy objectives, there is a transition to a new energy system where renewable energy sources are pushed and where new technologies need to be developed and adopted. The energy transition may result in deeper participation of individual consumers or citizens in community-based initiatives. Those communities operate collectively in the energy market producing RE or in local networks, based on local collaborations. The development of energy communities is not the same in all member state. Moreover, it is noted that their development is different depending on the European country. The aim of this paper is to collect data, using a survey, to study and to better understand what the citizen energy initiatives are, their main features and the motivations of individuals to participate on it. The citizens participation is a crucial point for the development of this type of communities. The main motivation for participation in these communities seems to be concerns about environmental and climate impacts. We also note that in these communities the trust is very important for the development of any RE project.

Land Use Conflicts in the Energy Transition: Dutch Dilemmas

The transition from fossil to renewable energy needs changes in land use. The development of renewable energy sources introduce extra and sometimes new externalities, such as shadows and noise on landscape. There are governments who are experiencing difficulties when developing renewable energy sources especially when existing land owners (and others) start anticipating on those externalities. Therewith, land use conflicts have become a major issue for governments in meeting renewable energy policy objectives. This paper explores the way how three dilemmas: tiers of government dilemma, mode of governance dilemma and norm-setting dilemma are approached by public authorities using policy documents, interviews, literature research and examples of the Dutch energy transition.

The rise of community choice aggregation and its implications for California’s energy transition: A preliminary assessment

Community choice aggregation—an emerging electricity supply model allowing residents and businesses to purchase electricity from local governments instead of utilities—is projected to account for 60% of Californian customers currently served by investor-owned utilities by 2020.Community choice aggregation advocates claim that the model is an effective means of meeting California’s renewable energy policy objectives in a way that is more democratic and socially just than the prevailing utility-based model of electricity governance. We interrogate these claims through a focus on three issues: community choice aggregation governance and access to capital, electricity procurement, and customer rates and retention. We find that community choice aggregators have been able to address concerns regarding access to capital while balancing competing objectives around renewable energy and affordability. However, local benefits—particularly in terms of local economic development driven by the expansion of distributed generation—are yet to be fully realized. In addition, ongoing policy uncertainty regarding cost allocation between utility and community choice aggregation customers may limit the ability of community choice aggregators to offer competitive rates, which may threaten the model’s long-term viability. We conclude by arguing that meeting California’s future renewable energy goals requires a reconfiguration of the regulatory framework that leverages the respective strengths of both community choice aggregators and investor-owned utilities in the context of the state’s energy transition.