Energy Intake Responses Research Articles

The effects of water temperature on gastric motility and energy intake in healthy young men

PurposeAlthough immediate pre-meal water ingestion has been shown to reduce energy intake in healthy young men, no studies are available regarding potential mechanisms underlying the effect of energy intake in response to different temperatures of pre-meal water ingestion. This study examined the effects of consuming different temperatures of water on gastric motility and energy intake in healthy young men.MethodsEleven young men were completed three, 1-day trials in a random order. Subjects visited the laboratory after a 10-h overnight fast and consumed 500 mL of water at 2 °C, 37 °C, or 60 °C in 5 min. Then, subjects sat on a chair over 1 h to measure the cross-sectional gastric antral area and gastric contractions using the ultrasound imaging systems. Thereafter, subjects consumed a test meal until they felt completely full. Energy intake was calculated from the amount of food consumed.ResultsEnergy intake in the 2 °C (6.7 ± 1.8 MJ) trial was 19% and 26% lower than the 37 °C (7.9 ± 2.3 MJ, p = 0.039) and 60 °C (8.5 ± 3.2 MJ, p = 0.025) trials, respectively. The frequency of the gastric contractions after 1-h consuming water was lowered in the 2 °C trial than the 60 °C trial (trial-time interaction, p = 0.020). The frequency of gastric contractions was positively related to energy intake (r = 0.365, p = 0.037).ConclusionsThese findings demonstrate that consuming water at 2 °C reduces energy intake and this reduction may be related to the modulation of the gastric motility.

Cognitive restriction accentuates the increased energy intake response to a 10-month multidisciplinary weight loss program in adolescents with obesity

BackgroundMultidisciplinary interventions have shown some merits in weight reduction strategies in youth, however, their impact on subsequent daily energy intake remains largely unknown. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the nutritional responses to a 10-month multidisciplinary intervention among adolescents with obesity, in relation to their eating behavior characteristics. MethodsThirty-five adolescents (mean age: 13.4 ± 1.2 years) with obesity took part in a 10-month residential multidisciplinary weight loss program. Anthropometric measurements, body composition (dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry), 24-h ad libitum energy intake (weighted), eating behaviors (Dutch Eating Behavior Questionnaire) and appetite sensations (Visual Analogue Scales) were assessed on three occasions: at their arrival in the institution (T0), after 5 months (T1), and at the end of the 10-month program (T2). ResultsThe mean weight loss reached 11% of the adolescents’ initial body weight, with an important inter-individual variability (−25% to +3% of their initial body weight). Results revealed sex differences change, with boys showing a higher decrease in fat mass percent and increase in fat-free mass compared with girls. Weight loss was accompanied by a significant decrease in emotional (−8.3%, p < 0.05) and external (−14.8%, p < 0.001) eating scores and a significant increase in 24-h ad libitum energy intake (+246 kcal, p < 0.001). The observed subsequent increased 24-h ad libitum energy intake at T2 compared to T0 was significantly higher in cognitively restrained eaters (+492 kcal) compared to unrestrained eaters (+115 kcal, p = 0,015). Dietary restraint score at baseline was inversely correlated with the percentage of weight loss (r = −0.44, p = 0.010). ConclusionA 10-month multidisciplinary weight loss intervention induced an increase in 24-h ad libitum energy intake compared to baseline, especially in cognitively restrained eaters. Moreover, initially cognitively restrained eaters tended to lose less body weight compared to unrestrained ones. These findings suggest that cognitive restriction may be a useful eating behavior characteristic to consider as a screening tool for identifying adverse responders to weight loss interventions in youth.

Homeostatic and neurocognitive control of energy intake in response to exercise in pediatric obesity: a psychobiological framework.

While energy intake and energy expenditure have long been studied independently, the alarming progression of obesity has led to a more integrative approach to energy balance considering their potential interactions. Although the available literature concerned with the effect of chronic and acute exercise on energy intake and appetite control in adults is considerable, these questions remain less explored among children and adolescents. Based on the search of four databases (Medline, Embase, PsycINFO and Cochrane Library; articles published until May 2018), the objective of this review is to summarize and discuss the effect of acute and chronic physical exercise on energy intake and appetite control in children and adolescents with obesity, and to identify the physiological and neurocognitive signals and pathways involved. Evidence suggested that acute intensive exercise has the potential to reduce subsequent energy intake in children and adolescents with obesity but not healthy weight, through both peripheral (mainly gastro-peptides) and neurocognitive (neural responses to food cues) pathways. The nutritional responses to chronic physical activity remain less clear and require further consideration, especially from an anti-obesity perspective.

Post-Exercise Appetite and Ad Libitum Energy Intake in Response to High-Intensity Interval Training versus Moderate- or Vigorous-Intensity Continuous Training among Physically Inactive Middle-Aged Adults.

High-intensity interval training (HIIT) is considered a time-efficient exercise strategy for weight management. However, data regarding the acute appetite and energy intake responses to HIIT versus continuous training remain inconclusive. This study investigated the ad libitum energy intake and appetite responses to a single session of HIIT versus moderate-intensity continuous training (MICT) and vigorous-intensity continuous training (VICT). Using a randomized crossover design, 11 middle-aged physically inactive men (45.7 ± 7.4 years, 23.5 ± 2.1 kg m−2) participated in three treadmill trials at 7-day intervals. HIIT comprised 10 1-min periods at 100% VO2max interspersed with 1-min periods of active recovery. MICT comprised a 40-min session at 65% VO2max, while VICT comprised a 20-min session at 80% VO2max. After each trial, the participants consumed an ad libitum buffet meal for which the energy intake was recorded. The participants’ perceived appetite was assessed before and after exercise sessions using the Visual Analogue Scale (VAS). No significant differences in post-exercise ad libitum energy intake were observed between trials (HIIT: 645 ± 262.9 kcal; MICT: 614.7 ± 271.2 kcal; VICT: 623.1 ± 249.0 kcal, p > 0.05). Although the perceived appetite responses exhibited a significant main effect of time (p < 0.01), no group differences were observed (p > 0.05). In summary, these findings suggest that the interval or continuous nature of exercise has no significant effect on appetite responses in physically inactive middle-aged adults, at least during the short-term post-exercise period.

Acute and Chronic Effects of Exercise on Appetite, Energy Intake, and Appetite-Related Hormones: The Modulating Effect of Adiposity, Sex, and Habitual Physical Activity.

Exercise facilitates weight control, partly through effects on appetite regulation. Single bouts of exercise induce a short-term energy deficit without stimulating compensatory effects on appetite, whilst limited evidence suggests that exercise training may modify subjective and homeostatic mediators of appetite in directions associated with enhanced meal-induced satiety. However, a large variability in responses exists between individuals. This article reviews the evidence relating to how adiposity, sex, and habitual physical activity modulate exercise-induced appetite, energy intake, and appetite-related hormone responses. The balance of evidence suggests that adiposity and sex do not modify appetite or energy intake responses to acute or chronic exercise interventions, but individuals with higher habitual physical activity levels may better adjust energy intake in response to energy balance perturbations. The effect of these individual characteristics and behaviours on appetite-related hormone responses to exercise remains equivocal. These findings support the continued promotion of exercise as a strategy for inducing short-term energy deficits irrespective of adiposity and sex, as well as the ability of exercise to positively influence energy balance over the longer term. Future well-controlled studies are required to further ascertain the potential mediators of appetite responses to exercise.

Obese Mice Are Protected From Increased Energy Intake in Response to Voluntary Wheel Running

Diseases of metabolism pose an increasing threat to public health that has led to greater demand for effective treatments. Obesity is a highly prevalent metabolic disease that afflicts over 100 million Americans and increases the risk of developing diabetes and cardiovascular disease. Lifestyle modifications that incorporate exercise are a standard prescription for obesity, but its effectiveness is limited due to variability in compliance and physiological adaptations (e.g. compensatory increases in energy intake). Previous studies have shown that voluntary exercise fails to induce weight loss in high fat fed mice, but little is known regarding the onset of exercise. Here, we tested the hypothesis that chronic overnutrition from high fat feeding will mitigate the compensatory increase in food intake that commonly accompanies increased energy expenditure from voluntary exercise.Starting at 12 weeks of age, male C57BL/6J mice were weight matched, singly housed and fed a chow (n=8) or high fat diet (HFD; 60% calories from fat; n=6) for 4 weeks. At 18 weeks of age, mice were housed in a Promethion Metabolic Analyzer to measure energy expenditure, food intake and physical activity. Experiments were performed at 21°C with running wheels locked for four days then unlocked for the subsequent nine days. Body composition was assessed both prior to and immediately following indirect calorimetry experiments. Ethoscan (Sable Systems) analysis was performed to examine voluntary wheel running (VWR) distance, duration and speed and measured the time and distance for off‐wheel activities (i.e. roaming and feeding).HF‐fed mice were heavier (WT: 26.9 ± 1.1 vs. HF: 36.8 ± 4.2 g; p &lt; 0.05) and had greater fat mass (WT: 3.5 ± 0.6 vs. HF: 11.1 ± 3.1 g; p &lt; 0.05) than chow‐fed mice prior to energy balance studies. VWR caused a decrease in whole body (WT: −0.3 ± 0.8 vs. HF: −4.0 ± 1.3 g; p &gt; 0.05) and fat mass (WT: 0.3 ± 0.6 vs. HF: −3.0 ± 0.9 g; p &lt; 0.05) in HFD‐fed, but not in chow‐fed mice. VWR distance, duration, and speed were not affected by diet. VWR increased energy expenditure (EE) with both diets equally, but energy intake (EI) only increased in chow‐fed mice. VWR decreased overall off‐wheel activity (OWA) regardless of diet.These data demonstrate that 9 days of VWR cause weight loss in HFD‐fed mice but not mice fed a chow‐diet. Because VWR did not vary between diets, the efficacy of VWR in HFD‐fed mice could instead be attributed to resistance to specific behavioral compensations (i.e. increased food intake) that occur with the introduction of VWR in lean mice.Support or Funding InformationDSL (16POST29910001); D.H.W. (NIH DK054902 and DK076169)This abstract is from the Experimental Biology 2018 Meeting. There is no full text article associated with this abstract published in The FASEB Journal.

The Chronic Effect of Interval Training on Energy Intake: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.

Single bouts of acute exercise do not appear to increase subsequent energy intake (EI), even when energy deficit is large. However, studies have shown a compensatory effect on EI following chronic exercise, and it remains unclear whether this is affected by exercise intensity. We investigated the chronic effect of high-intensity interval training (HIIT) and sprint interval training (SIT) on EI when compared with moderate-intensity continuous training (MICT) or no exercise (CON). Databases were searched until 13 March 2017 for studies measuring EI in response to chronic exercise (≥4 weeks of duration) of a high-intensity interval nature. Meta-analysis was conducted for between-group comparisons on EI (kilojoules) and bodyweight (kg). Results showed large heterogeneity, and therefore, metaregression analyses were conducted. There were no significant differences in EI between HIIT/SIT versus MICT (P=0.282), HIIT/SIT versus CON (P=0.398), or MICT versus CON (P=0.329). Although bodyweight was significantly reduced after HIIT/SIT versus CON but not HIIT/SIT versus MICT (in studies measuring EI), this was not clinically meaningful (<2% mean difference). In conclusion, there is no compensatory increase in EI following a period of HIIT/SIT compared to MICT or no exercise. However, this review highlights important methodological considerations for future studies.

Increased energy intake following sleep restriction in men and women: A one‐size‐fits‐all conclusion?

ObjectiveWe assessed the degree of inter-individual responses in energy intake (EI) to an imposed sleep restriction versus habitual sleep duration protocol. We also investigated participant (age, sex, ethnicity and BMI) and study (study site, protocol order) characteristics as potential contributors to the variance in EI responses to sleep restriction between individuals.MethodsData from two randomized crossover trials were combined. All participants (n = 43; age: 31±7 years, BMI: 23±2 kg/m2) were free of medical/sleep conditions, non-smokers, reported not performing shift work, and having an average sleep duration of 7–9h/night. Ad libitum, 24h EI was objectively-assessed following sleep restriction (3.5–4h in bed/night) and habitual sleep (7–9h in bed/night) conditions.ResultsLarge inter-individual variations in EI change (ΔEI) between restricted and habitual sleep conditions were noted (−813 to 1437 kcal/day). Only phase order was associated with ΔEI (β = −568 kcal/day, 95% CI for β = −921 to −215 kcal; P = 0.002); participants randomized to the habitual sleep condition first had greater increases in EI when sleep was restricted (P = 0.01).ConclusionsLarge inter-individual variations in ΔEI following sleep restriction were noted, suggesting that not all individuals were negatively impacted by the effects of sleep restriction.

Nutritional compensation to exercise- vs. diet-induced acute energy deficit in adolescents with obesity

BackgroundTo compare the energy and macronutrient intake responses to equivalent energy deficits induced by diet (food restriction) and exercise in adolescents with obesity. MethodsFourteen 12–15years old obese adolescents completed three experimental conditions (08:00am to 07:30pm) in a randomized crossover design: i) control session (CON); ii) diet-induced 25% energy depletion (Def-EI), iii) and an exercise-induced 25% energy depletion (Def-EX). The sessions order was either CON/Def-EI/Def-EX or CON/Def-EX/Def-EI as the deficit corresponded to 25% of the energy ingested at lunch on the control day (CON) and was imposed either by exercise (Def-EX) or diet (Def-EI). Ad libitum EI and macronutrients preferences were assessed at dinner and appetite sensations assessed using visual analogue scales. ResultsMean BMI was 36.6±5.0kg/m2 (z-BMI: 2.40±0.29). The individually calibrated 25% energy deficit represented 254±92kcal. Ad libitum EI was significantly higher during both Def-EX (971±225kcal) and Def-EI (949±246kcal) compared with CON (742±297) (p<0.05). The relative energy ingested derived from fat was significantly higher on both Def-EX (36.6±10.9%) and Def-EI (36.9±13.1%) compared with CON (21.6±7.8%) (p<0.05). The energy derived from carbohydrates was significantly lower on both Def-EX (48.3±9.0%) and Def-EI (44.4±17.3%) compare with CON (61.1±10.1%) (p<0.05). Appetite sensations were not different between conditions. The induced energy deficit was negatively correlated with the ad libitum EI difference between the exercise and the control session (EI Def-EX – EI CON) (r=−0,643 p<0.05) and positively correlated with the EI difference between the dietary restriction and the control session (EI Def-EI – EI CON) (r=0,569 p<0.05). ConclusionEquicaloric exercise- or diet-induced energy deficits could lead to similar EI compensation in obese adolescents but this EI compensation might be influenced by the magnitude of the deficit.

How Strongly Does Appetite Counter Weight Loss? Quantification of the Feedback Control of Human Energy Intake.

To quantify the feedback control of energy intake in response to long-term covert manipulation of energy balance in free-living humans. A validated mathematical method was used to calculate energy intake changes during a 52-week placebo-controlled trial in 153 patients treated with canagliflozin, a sodium glucose co-transporter inhibitor that increases urinary glucose excretion, thereby resulting in weight loss without patients being directly aware of the energy deficit. The relationship between the body weight time course and the calculated energy intake changes was analyzed using principles from engineering control theory. It was discovered that weight loss leads to a proportional increase in appetite resulting in eating above baseline by ∼100 kcal/day per kilogram of lost weight-an amount more than threefold larger than the corresponding energy expenditure adaptations. While energy expenditure adaptations have often been considered the main reason for slowing of weight loss and subsequent regain, feedback control of energy intake plays an even larger role and helps explain why long-term maintenance of a reduced body weight is so difficult.

Contributions of upper gut hormones and motility to the energy intake-suppressant effects of intraduodenal nutrients in healthy, lean men - a pooled-data analysis.

We have previously identified pyloric pressures and plasma cholecystokinin (CCK) concentrations as independent determinants of energy intake following administration of intraduodenal lipid and intravenous CCK. We evaluated in healthy men whether these parameters also determine energy intake in response to intraduodenal protein, and whether, across the nutrients, any predominant gastrointestinal (GI) factors exist, or many factors make small contributions. Data from nine published studies, in which antropyloroduodenal pressures, GI hormones, and GI /appetite perceptions were measured during intraduodenal lipid or protein infusions, were pooled. In all studies energy intake was quantified immediately after the infusions. Specific variables for inclusion in a mixed‐effects multivariable model for determination of independent predictors of energy intake were chosen following assessment for collinearity, and within‐subject correlations between energy intake and these variables were determined using bivariate analyses adjusted for repeated measures. In models based on all studies, or lipid studies, there were significant effects for amplitude of antral pressure waves, premeal glucagon‐like peptide‐1 (GLP‐1) and time‐to‐peak GLP‐1 concentrations, GLP‐1 AUC and bloating scores (P < 0.05), and trends for basal pyloric pressure (BPP), amplitude of duodenal pressure waves, peak CCK concentrations, and hunger and nausea scores (0.05 < P ≤ 0.094), to be independent determinants of subsequent energy intake. In the model including the protein studies, only BPP was identified as an independent determinant of energy intake (P < 0.05). No single parameter was identified across all models, and effects of the variables identified were relatively small. Taken together, while GI mechanisms contribute to the regulation of acute energy intake by lipid and protein, their contribution to the latter is much less. Moreover, the effects are likely to reflect small, cumulative contributions from a range of interrelated factors.

Psychological Determinants Of Eating Behavior In A Randomized Controlled Trial Of High-intensity Interval Training

Psychological factors related to eating behavior including components of the Three-Factor Eating Questionnaire (TFEQ) and the Power of Food Scale (PFS) may predict some of the variance in changes in weight and energy intake in response to a behavioral intervention. The ability of high intensity interval training (HIIT) to influence these variables is unknown, but evidence suggests that HIIT may offer similar or superior health benefits with decreased time commitment versus continuous aerobic exercise. PURPOSE: To examine changes in these psychological constructs in response to HIIT and determine if they are related to changes in body composition and energy intake. METHODS: Active participants were either randomized to a control (n = 17) or one of three HIIT regimes (n = 27) for 6 weeks. Controls maintained their activity whilst participants in HIIT completed 3 d·wk-1 of training. Before and after training, participants completed the TFEQ, PFS, and a 4-day food record. HIIT groups were pooled for this analysis. Repeated-measures ANOVA for time, group, and sex were used to analyze data. RESULTS: Complete survey data were available from all controls and 19 experimental subjects (17 W and 19 M). No main effects of group were observed (p>0.05), but a main effect of time (p<0.05) for Disinhibition and a group*time interaction for Hunger (p<0.05) were observed. Disinhibition decreased over time (p<0.05) whilst hunger decreased from baseline in the HIIT group (p<0.05). For a subsample (13 M and 12 W), Flexible Restraint and Internal Disinhibition decreased over time (p<0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Data suggest that an HIIT intervention does not significantly impact eating behavior at a group level, though a slight reduction in susceptibility to hunger was observed. Individual variability in psychological measures of eating behavior may be linked to changes in energy intake and body weight.

Individual Differences in Post-exercise Ad Libitum Energy Intake in Children

Previous studies have shown individual differences in the energy intake (EI) response to exercise, but homeostatic or cognitive mechanisms underlying these differences are unclear, particularly in youth. Fat-free mass is a known predictor of daily EI in adolescents and adults, predominantly through its effects on resting metabolic rate and total energy expenditure. In addition, studies in adults have shown that increased perceived difficulty of exercise is associated with caloric over-compensation through greater EI. However, the influence of these biological and psychological factors in children is unknown. PURPOSE: To examine the predictors of post-exercise EI in children. METHODS: Healthy-weight children ages 9–12 years (n = 18) reported to the laboratory for 1 baseline and 2 experimental visits (EX = exercise, SED = sedentary) each separated by 1 week in a randomized crossover design. Percent body fat (bioelectrical impedance analysis), weight (kg), and height (m) were used to calculate fat-mass index (FMI) and fat-free mass index (FFMI; kg/m2). On the EX day, children exercised at 70% estimated VO2peak for 30 minutes on a cycle ergometer and gave ratings of perceived exertion (RPE). Objective EI (kcal) was measured at identical meals on the EX and SED days: standard breakfast and ad libitum lunch, snack, and dinner. Paired t-tests, Pearson’s correlations, and multiple linear regressions were performed using SPSS. RESULTS: Total EI was not statistically different between the EX and SED days (t = 0.47, p = 0.64). However, FFMI was positively associated with EI on the EX day (r = 0.50, p < 0.05), but not the SED day (p = 0.25). RPE was also positively associated with EI on the EX day (r = 0.78, p < 0.01). Together, FFMI and RPE explained 71% of the variability in EI on the EX day (F(2,15) = 17.14, p < 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: Fat-free mass was associated with EI on the EX day but not the SED day, suggesting better homeostatic regulation of EI with imposed exercise. Despite experiencing the same 70% relative exercise intensity, children varied in their perceived difficulty of the exercise. Increased perceived difficulty predicted greater EI on the EX day. These findings demonstrate a role for both homeostatic and cognitive factors in post-exercise EI regulation in children. Supported by USDA/NIFA Grant #2011-67001-30117 Program A2121.

Does Milk Portion Size or Energy Density Affect Preschool Children's Lunch Intake?

Government‐sponsored programs, such as the Child and Adult Care Food Program, recommend serving age‐appropriate portions of lower‐energy‐dense milk in order to moderate energy intake while promoting a nutrient‐dense diet. It is unclear, however, to what extent changes in milk portion size and energy density (ED) affect children's intake of both milk and the accompanying foods. To evaluate these recommendations, controlled studies are needed to determine if these factors influence children's intake of a meal served in their usual eating environment. Using a 2‐by‐2 crossover design, we investigated the influence of typical variations in milk portion size and ED on intake when milk was served with a standard lunch. Experimental meals were served once a week for 4 weeks in childcare classrooms and was consumed ad libitum by 125 children aged 3–5 y (67 boys and 58 girls). Across the 4 meals, unflavored milk was varied in portion size (9 fl. oz. or 6 fl.oz. [recommended]) and ED (3.25% full‐fat [0.61 kcal/g] or 1% low‐fat [0.42 kcal/g; recommended]). The foods served at the meal (chicken, pasta, broccoli, and bananas) were not varied. The results showed that serving the larger portion of milk increased milk energy intake by 20±3 kcal (27%; P&lt;0.0001) compared to serving the smaller portion, but had no significant effect on food intake or meal energy intake. Serving higher‐ED milk increased milk energy intake by 31±2 kcal (44%) and decreased food energy intake by 26±6 kcal (10%) compared to serving lower‐ED milk (both P&lt;0.0001). Thus, across all children, the change in milk ED did not influence total energy intake at the meal. The effects of milk portion size and ED were not influenced by most child characteristics, such as age, body size, and parent‐reported eating behaviors; however, the effect of milk ED on intake did differ significantly by sex. For boys, serving higher‐ED milk decreased food energy intake by 43±8 kcal (16%; P&lt;0.0001) and did not affect total energy intake compared to serving lower‐ED milk. For girls, consuming more energy from the higher‐ED milk did not lead to a significant compensatory reduction in food energy intake and an additional 24±10 kcal (7%; P=0.03) was consumed over the entire meal. This suggests that boys, but not girls, adjusted their food energy intake in response to changes in ED of milk consumed with lunch. These results showed that serving larger portions of milk could promote milk intake without affecting total energy intake at a meal. However, the provision of lower‐ED milk is appropriate for preschool nutrition programs, since some children did not fully adjust their intake in response to higher‐ED milk and increased their lunch energy intake.Support or Funding InformationUSDA NIFA Grant 2011‐67001‐30117 and National Institutes of Health Grant DK082580.

A systematic review and meta-analysis of energy and macronutrient intake responses to physical activity interventions in children and adolescents with obesity.

The effects of regular physical activity on energy intake in obese adolescents are unknown. The objective is to determine how physical activity interventions affect energy and macronutrient intake in overweight/obese youth. Databases were searched from December 2014 to December 2015 for studies that measured energy and/or macronutrient consumption in response to physical activity intervention in overweight/obese youth. The review comprises primary source articles published in English in peer-reviewed journals. Articles that presented data on energy and/or macronutrient intake before and after a physical activity intervention (without dietary restriction) in overweight or obese children and teenagers (up to 18 years old) were included. Of the initial 307 references found, nine were included. The nine included studies analysed the effect of 15 different physical activity interventions. Nine showed a decrease and six unchanged energy intakes. The effect size for total energy intake ranged from -2.108 to -0.207 (n = 14). Results of the meta-analysis revealed a mean effect of physical intervention to reduce intake of -1.003 (95% confidence interval = -1.261 to -0.745, p < 0.001). Results for heterogeneity among these studies were I2 = 67.421; Q = 39.903; df = 13, p < 0.001. The mean energy intake reduction was -323 ± 286 kcal. Macronutrient intake was assessed in 11 interventions. Protein intake was found decreased in five (reduction of -26.8 ± 19.2 g), seven reported fat decrease (reduction of -26.4 ± 17.8 g) and five a decrease in CHO (reduction of -72.5 ± 22.8 g). The meta-analysis revealed significant decreases of each macronutrient (p < 0.001). Structured physical activity interventions favour decreased daily energy intake in obese adolescents.

Appetite and Energy Intake Responses to Acute Energy Deficits in Females versus Males.

ABSTRACTPurposeTo explore whether compensatory responses to acute energy deficits induced by exercise or diet differ by sex.MethodsIn experiment one, 12 healthy women completed three 9-h trials (control, exercise-induced (Ex-Def) and food restriction–induced energy deficit (Food-Def)) with identical energy deficits being imposed in the Ex-Def (90-min run, ∼70% of V˙O2max) and Food-Def trials. In experiment two, 10 men and 10 women completed two 7-h trials (control and exercise). Sixty minutes of running (∼70% of V˙O2max) was performed at the beginning of the exercise trial. The participants rested throughout the remainder of the exercise trial and during the control trial. Appetite ratings, plasma concentrations of gut hormones, and ad libitum energy intake were assessed during main trials.ResultsIn experiment one, an energy deficit of approximately 3500 kJ induced via food restriction increased appetite and food intake. These changes corresponded with heightened concentrations of plasma acylated ghrelin and lower peptide YY3–36. None of these compensatory responses were apparent when an equivalent energy deficit was induced by exercise. In experiment two, appetite ratings and plasma acylated ghrelin concentrations were lower in exercise than in control, but energy intake did not differ between trials. The appetite, acylated ghrelin, and energy intake response to exercise did not differ between men and women.ConclusionsWomen exhibit compensatory appetite, gut hormone, and food intake responses to acute energy restriction but not in response to an acute bout of exercise. Additionally, men and women seem to exhibit similar acylated ghrelin and PYY3–36 responses to exercise-induced energy deficits. These findings advance understanding regarding the interaction between exercise and energy homeostasis in women.

The impact of a mental work on food preferences, eating behavior traits and satiety efficiency

Sedentary lifestyles, which are partly due to the type of labor being performed, have contributed to the increased prevalence of obesity. In general, labor in a modern context solicits mental work, which has been shown to promote overeating and altered satiety efficiency.The aim of this study was to evaluate the impact of knowledge-based work on food preferences, eating behaviors traits and appetite sensations. The relationship between these effects and the morphological profile was also assessed.A cross-over experimental design was used in this study for which 35 healthy adults (22 men and 13 women (mean age: 24±3years)), were recruited. The participants were randomly assigned the one of the two following conditions: mental work (reading a document and writing a summary of 350 words with the use of a computer) or control (rest in seated position). Each condition lasted 45min, and was followed by a standardized ad libitum buffet-type meal. Measurements included anthropometric variables, ad libitum food intake, appetite sensations before and after each condition, and satiety quotient, a marker of satiety efficiency in response to the meal. Eating behavior traits were also evaluated using the Three-Factor Eating Questionnaire (TFEQ).Eating behaviors (restriction, disinhibition) were not associated with the energy intake in both conditions and in both genders. Women appeared to have a higher energy intake after the mental work condition (p<0.05), which was accompanied by an increased carbohydrate intake (p<0.05). Moreover, participants with the highest waist circumference had lower satiety efficiency (r=0.43, p<0.05) in response to mental work.These results suggest that increased energy intake in response to knowledge-based work is associated with food preference and an altered satiety efficiency in women and individuals with higher waist circumference.

Acute effects of active gaming on ad libitum energy intake and appetite sensations of 8-11-year-old boys.

The present study examined the acute effects of active gaming on energy intake (EI) and appetite responses in 8-11-year-old boys in a school-based setting. Using a randomised cross-over design, twenty-one boys completed four individual 90-min gaming bouts, each separated by 1 week. The gaming bouts were (1) seated gaming, no food or drink; (2) active gaming, no food or drink; (3) seated gaming with food and drink offered ad libitum; and (4) active gaming with food and drink offered ad libitum. In the two gaming bouts during which foods and drinks were offered, EI was measured. Appetite sensations - hunger, prospective food consumption and fullness - were recorded using visual analogue scales during all gaming bouts at 30-min intervals and at two 15-min intervals post gaming. In the two bouts with food and drink, no significant differences were found in acute EI (MJ) (P=0·238). Significant differences were detected in appetite sensations for hunger, prospective food consumption and fullness between the four gaming bouts at various time points. The relative EI calculated for the two gaming bouts with food and drink (active gaming 1·42 (sem 0·28) MJ; seated gaming 2·12 (sem 0·25) MJ) was not statistically different. Acute EI in response to active gaming was no different from seated gaming, and appetite sensations were influenced by whether food was made available during the 90-min gaming bouts.

Reciprocal Compensation to Changes in Dietary Intake and Energy Expenditure within the Concept of Energy Balance.

An imbalance between energy intake and energy expenditure is the primary etiology for excess weight gain. Increased energy expenditure via exercise and energy restriction via diet are commonly used approaches to induce weight loss. Such behavioral interventions, however, have generally resulted in a smaller than expected weight loss, which in part has been attributed to compensatory adaptations in other components contributing to energy balance. Current research points to a loose coupling between energy intake and energy expenditure on a daily basis, and evidence for long-term adaptations has been inconsistent. The lack of conclusive evidence on compensatory adaptations in response to alterations in energy balance can be attributed to differences in intervention type and study population. Physical activity (PA) levels may be reduced in response to aerobic exercise but not in response to resistance exercise. Furthermore, athletic and lean adults have been shown to increase their energy intake in response to exercise, whereas no such response was observed in obese adults. There is also evidence that caloric restriction is associated with a decline in PA. Generally, humans seem to be better equipped to defend against weight loss than avoid weight gain, but results also show a large individual variability. Therefore, individual differences rather than group means should be explored to identify specific characteristics of "compensators" and "noncompensators." This review emphasizes the need for more research with simultaneous measurements of all major components contributing to energy balance to enhance the understanding of the regulation of energy balance, which is crucial to address the current obesity epidemic.

Energy and Macronutrient Intake in the Midwest Exercise Trial 2 (MET-2).

This study aimed to examine the effect of exercise training over 10 months at two levels of energy expenditure on energy and macronutrient intake in a sample of previously sedentary, overweight/obese young adults. We conducted a 10-month trial in 141 young adults who were randomized to either supervised exercise 5 d·wk(-1) at 400 and 600 kcal per session or nonexercise control. Participants were instructed to maintain their usual ad libitum diet. Energy/macronutrient intake was assessed at baseline and 3.5, 7, and 10 months over 7-d periods of ad libitum eating in a university cafeteria using digital photography. Foods consumed outside the cafeteria were assessed using multiple-pass recalls. There were no significant between-group differences in absolute energy intake at baseline or at any other time point in the total sample or in men. In women, absolute energy intake was significantly greater in the 600-kcal-per-session group versus controls at both 3.5 and 7 months. There were no significant between-group differences in relative energy intake (kcal·kg·d(-1)) at any time point in the total sample, in men or women. There were no significant within- or between-group differences of change in absolute or relative energy intake in any of the three study groups in the total sample or in men or women. No clinically relevant changes in macronutrient intake were observed. Aerobic exercise training does not significantly alter energy or macronutrient intake in overweight and obese young adults. The possibility of a threshold level beyond which increased exercise energy expenditure fails to produce a more negative energy balance and potential sex differences in the energy intake response to increased levels of exercise are potentially important.