Energy-dense Foods Research Articles

Meal composition during an ad libitum buffet meal and longitudinal predictions of weight and percent body fat change: The role of hyper-palatable, energy dense, and ultra-processed foods

BackgroundFoods that increase obesity risk are ubiquitous in the US food environment. Such foods may be the target of hedonic eating, which may facilitate weight gain and lead to obesity.The study tested whether meal composition during an ad libitum buffet meal was associated with 1-year weight and percent body fat changes among healthy younger adults without obesity. Hyper-palatable foods (HPF) were the study focus; comparisons were conducted with high energy dense (HED) and ultra-processed foods (UPF). DesignYounger adults without obesity (N = 82; 43% male; mean age 26.8) completed an ad libitum buffet meal and provided body composition measurements at baseline and 1-year follow up. Multiple regression models tested associations between the proportion of the target food consumed (HPF, HED, or UPF) during the ad libitum meal and 1) weight change and 2) percent body fat change. The proportion of HPF was characterized by HPF group, specifically carbohydrate and sodium (CSOD) foods or fat and sodium (FSOD) foods. ResultsParticipants who consumed a greater proportion of CSOD HPF in their ad libitum buffet meals had significantly greater weight change (b = 0.354, p = .003) and percent body fat change (b = 0.247, p = .036) at 1-year follow up. In contrast, no significant associations were found between the proportion of FSOD HPF, HED, or UPF consumed and anthropometric outcomes (p values = .099-.938). ConclusionsEating a greater proportion of hyper-palatable CSOD foods ad libitum appears to be a pattern of hedonic eating, which may increase an individual's risk for weight and body fat gain in early adulthood.

Food Choice Decisions of Collegiate Division I Athletes: A Qualitative Exploratory Study.

Limited research has examined athletes’ food and health beliefs and decisions and the congruence of these decisions with recommendations from nutrition professionals. This study aimed to improve understanding of athletes’ food-related beliefs and practices to enable nutrition professionals to more effectively enhance performance while protecting athletes’ health. Division I college athletes (n = 14, 64% female) from a variety of sports were recruited to participate in 20-min semi-structured phone interviews about food and nutrition-related behaviors and cognitions. Data were content analyzed to identify themes and trends. Prominent factors influencing athletes’ food choices were potential benefits to health and performance, availability of foods, and recommendations from sports dietitians. Foods commonly consumed by athletes, including fruits, vegetables, and lean protein, were generally healthy and aligned with sports nutrition recommendations. Athletes avoided energy-dense nutrient-poor foods, such as fast food and fried foods, with the goal of improving performance. Some athletes took supplements (i.e., multivitamin, iron, protein) on the premise that they would improve health and enhance performance or recovery. While athletes’ nutrition behaviors are generally congruent with current recommendations, findings highlighted misconceptions held by athletes related to the benefits of some supplements and the belief that packaged/processed foods were inherently less healthy than other options. Nutrition misconceptions held by athletes and incongruities between athletes’ nutrition knowledge and behaviors suggest that dietitians should aim to dispel misconceptions held by athletes and provide additional guidance and information to support athletes’ current healthful behaviors to ensure these behaviors extend beyond their college athletic career.

O13 Acceptability, Perceived Benefits, and Unintended Consequences of a Virtual Nutrition Intervention for Adolescents with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)

<h3>Background</h3> Adolescents with ASD exhibit an increased prevalence of problematic eating behaviors, such as food selectivity, or consuming a narrow range of foods, and consume more energy-dense foods and fewer fruits and vegetables than typically developing children. <h3>Objective</h3> The purpose of this study was to examine the acceptability, perceived benefits, and unintended consequences of a virtual implementation of BALANCE (Bringing Adolescent Learners with Autism Nutrition and Culinary Education), an 8-week theory-driven nutrition intervention for adolescents with ASD. <h3>Study Design, Setting, Participants</h3> A qualitative study design was used. Twenty-seven adolescents aged 12-20 years who attended the BALANCE intervention and their parents participated in the study. Twenty-one parents participated in an interview. Six focus groups with 1 to 5 adolescents in each group were conducted. Data were collected virtually via Microsoft Teams. <h3>Measurable Outcome/Analysis</h3> Focus groups and interviews were audio-recorded and transcribed. Data were analyzed for a priori and emergent themes regarding intervention acceptability (likes, dislikes, satisfaction, and suggestions for improvement), perceived benefits, and unintended consequences. <h3>Results</h3> The intervention was generally acceptable to participants. Parents described, "I was so impressed," "I feel like [he] was so happy," and "he is more open to try new things." Themes for acceptability included "virtual format," "group setting," "autonomy/independence," "sensory components," "interaction," "reinforcement," and "parent component." Themes for perceived benefits included "diet changes," "healthy weight," "knowledge/awareness," "behavioral skills," "self-efficacy," "outcome expectations," "outcome expectancies," and "other lifestyle changes." "Anxiety/discomfort" during intervention lessons was an emergent theme regarding unintended consequences. <h3>Conclusion</h3> Our findings suggest that a virtual implementation of BALANCE was acceptable according to adolescents with ASD and their parents based on their reported perceptions and feelings about the intervention. Based on participant feedback, many adolescents with ASD may benefit from small group interventions, and virtual interventions are a convenient option for some adolescents and parents.

Oral Processing, Satiation and Obesity: Overview and Hypotheses.

Increasing the speed of eating or decreasing the amount of chewing of a test meal significantly decreases its satiation, increases concomitant caloric intake, and influences entero-endocrine secretion. Speed of eating is a strong risk factor for obesity and longitudinal studies suggest an etiological relationship. Individuals with obesity have an increase in bite size, less chewing per bite, decreased satiation, and greater food intake. Oral processing in terms of bite size and amount of chewing per gram of food is influenced by food texture and textural complexity. Soft foods increase bite size and decrease chewing per gram of food and meal duration compared to hard foods. An ultra-processed diet can lead to greater weight gain than a non-processed diet and a significant increase in eating rate. Many children with obesity are noted by their parents to have persistent hunger on a questionnaire and this is often extreme. Results of attempts to change eating behavior have been mixed in terms of producing long-term changes in eating behavior and body weight. It is hypothesized that there may be a unidirectional relationship between changes in oral processing, satiation and weight gain. However, the presence of persistent hunger can produce a vicious cycle that may exacerbate obesity and make treatment difficult. The increased energy density of foods as found particularly in ultra-processed foods also influences energy intake and obesity.

P15 Overeating: What Does It Mean To African American Female Caretakers?

<h3>Background</h3> African American women are disproportionately burdened with cardiovascular disease and co-morbid risk factors. Overeating has been established as a cardiovascular disease risk factor though there is limited evidence of its impact on cardiovascular disease risk in African American female caretakers. It is important to understand diet-related cardiovascular disease risk as it relates to overeating in this population given the potential impact of maternal dietary behaviors on children's dietary behaviors. <h3>Objective</h3> To explore how African American female caretakers describe overeating. <h3>Study Design, Settings and Participants</h3> This phenomenological study collected qualitative data on participants' views on overeating through individual online interviews using an interview guide. Participants were recruited from a local university's electronic listserv which included self-identified African American students and staff members <h3>Measurable Outcome/Analysis</h3> Data were content analyzed to identify themes related to general eating behaviors and overeating. <h3>Results</h3> Participants (n = 8) were university staff members and students identified as African American female caretakers with an average age of 33 years. Overeating was described using a variety of concepts ranging from high weight status to unawareness of satiety signals and with terms such as ‘stuffed' and ‘disordered eating.' The phrase ‘physically uncomfortable' was used to describe overeating in 50% of the interviews. When overeating, participants reported having a distinct taste preference for high-energy, carbohydrate-rich foods, such as cakes and cookies. Overeating occurred in social settings, including family and cultural events, over 50% of the time and as a result of daily stressors. <h3>Conclusion</h3> Culture, emotion and family play an integral role in how and when overeating occurs among this group. Consumption of energy dense foods because of overeating is particularly relevant because of the contribution to diet related chronic disease risk. Given the high rates of chronic disease among African American women, an understanding of how overeating is defined for this population will aid nutrition professionals in tailoring messages.

Policy analysis indicates health-sensitive trade and subsidy reforms are needed in the UK to avoid adverse dietary health impacts post-Brexit.

The United Kingdom's food system will be greatly impacted by Brexit-related trade deals and policy developments-with implications for dietary risk factors and public health. Here we use an integrated economic-health modelling framework to analyse the impacts of different policy approaches to Brexit. A 'soft Brexit' that is in line with the EU-UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement increases diet-related mortality in the United Kingdom as costs for health-promoting and import-dependent foods increase and their consumption decreases. Negotiating free-trade agreements with the United States and Commonwealth countries as part of a 'global Britain' approach could triple the negative health impacts of Brexit as greater availability of energy-dense foods increases weight-related risks without meaningfully reducing dietary risks. Eliminating import tariffs on health-sensitive horticultural products could mitigate the negative health impacts of Brexit, and reforming agricultural subsidies to incentivize greater domestic horticultural production could lead to net health gains. Combining these health-sensitive approaches to trade policy and subsidy reform doubled the health gains, offering a promising approach for mitigating the detrimental impacts Brexit could have on dietary health in the United Kingdom.

Dietary Patterns and Oral Health Behaviours Associated with Caries Development from 4 to 7 Years of Age.

The association between modifiable risk factors and caries in children has been documented; however, most studies have been cross-sectional and have not considered the complexity of dietary factors and oral health habits. This study aimed to investigate the prospective association between dietary patterns and oral health behaviours at 4 years of age and the development of new decayed, missing, and filled teeth (d3–6mft/D3–6MFT) over a period of three years. Participants were children from the Generation XXI population-based birth cohort. At 4 years of age, diet patterns were assessed using a food frequency questionnaire, with three dietary patterns being identified. For the purpose of capturing the new development of caries between 4 and 7 years of age, two dental outcomes were defined in the mixed dentition: “dental caries development” and “severe dental caries development” in the mixed dentition. Bivariate analysis and multivariate logistic regression were used. From 4 to 7 years of age, 51.2% of the children had at least one new d3–6mft/D3–6MFT and 27.4% had more than two new d3–6mft/D3–6MFT. Children belonging to the “energy-dense foods” (OR = 2.19; 95% CI: 1.20–4.00) and “snacking” (OR = 2.19; 95% CI: 1.41–3.41) dietary patterns at 4 years old were associated with severe dental caries development three years later. Preventive strategies should be implemented in an attempt to reduce snacking and the consumption of energy-dense, micronutrient-poor foods to promote children’s oral health.

Molecular Insulin Actions Are Sexually Dimorphic in Lipid Metabolism.

The increment in energy-dense food and low physical activity has contributed to the current obesity pandemic, which is more prevalent in women than in men. Insulin is an anabolic hormone that regulates the metabolism of lipids, carbohydrates, and proteins in adipose tissue, liver, and skeletal muscle. During obesity, nutrient storage capacity is dysregulated due to a reduced insulin action on its target organs, producing insulin resistance, an early marker of metabolic dysfunction. Insulin resistance in adipose tissue is central in metabolic diseases due to the critical role that this tissue plays in energy homeostasis. We focused on sexual dimorphism on the molecular mechanisms of insulin actions and their relationship with the physiology and pathophysiology of adipose tissue. Until recently, most of the physiological and pharmacological studies were done in males without considering sexual dimorphism, which is relevant. There is ample clinical and epidemiological evidence of its contribution to the establishment and progression of metabolic diseases. Sexual dimorphism is a critical and often overlooked factor that should be considered in design of sex-targeted therapeutic strategies and public health policies to address obesity and diabetes.

Dietary Patterns in Early Childhood and the Risk of Childhood Overweight: The GECKO Drenthe Birth Cohort.

Limited and inconsistent evidence exists on the associations between dietary patterns and overweight during childhood. The present study describes dietary patterns of three-year-old Dutch children and associations between childhood overweight and body mass index (BMI) development between 3 and 10 years. In the GECKO Drenthe birth cohort (N = 1306), body height and weight were measured around the age of 3, 4, 5, and 10 years, and overweight was defined according to Cole and Lobstein. A validated food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) was used to measure diet at 3 years. Dietary patterns were derived using principal components analysis (PCA). Using logistic regression analyses, pattern scores were related to overweight at 3 and 10 years. A linear mixed-effect model was used to estimate BMI-SDS development between 3 to 10 years according to quartiles of adherence to the pattern scores. Two dietary patterns were identified: (1) ‘minimally processed foods’, indicating high intakes of vegetables/sauces/savory dishes, and (2) ‘ultra-processed foods’, indicating high intakes of white bread/crisps/sugary drinks. A 1 SD increase in the ‘ultra-processed foods’ pattern score increased the odds of overweight at 10 years (adjusted OR: 1.30; 95%CI: 1.08, 1.57; p = 0.006). The ‘minimally processed foods’ pattern was not associated with overweight. Although a high adherence to both dietary patterns was associated with a higher BMI-SDS up to 10 years of age, a stronger association for the ‘ultra-processed foods’ pattern was observed (p < 0.001). A dietary pattern high in energy-dense and low-fiber ultra-processed foods at 3 years is associated with overweight and a high BMI-SDS later in childhood.

Sweet processed foods in Brazil: use of sugar and sweeteners, inclusion of sugar claims and impact on nutritional profile

SummaryThis study characterised the main sweet beverages and food products marketed in Brazil regarding (i) the addition of sugar/sweeteners, (ii) nutritional profile and (iii) sugar claims. Results revealed that most of the beverages had added sweeteners, while food products were mainly sweetened with sugar. Moreover, &gt;90% of the powdered products had added sweeteners. ‘Zero sugar’ (46%) and ‘light’ (55%) were the most common sugar claims in sugar‐free and reduced‐sugar products, respectively. Powdered products, soya drinks and baked products included claims less frequently. Regarding the nutritional profile, beverages with sugar substitution had a proportionally greater reduction in the content of carbohydrates and calories (up to 99%, for both) in relation to food (&lt;82% and &lt;85%, respectively). The results suggest that reducing sugar in solid foods remains a greater challenge than in beverages and that this reduction has less impact on the final energy density of foods.

Racial/ethnic differences in dietary intake among a diverse sample of adolescents: An experimental study.

African-American (AA) and Hispanic/Latina (HL) females have higher obesity prevalence than do non-Hispanic Whites (NHW); this may be due to AA and HL consuming more energy-dense foods in response to stressors. This study examined racial/ethnic differences in dietary intake under controlled conditions (relaxation and stress) in a diverse sample of adolescent females. Participants included 120 adolescent females (30% AA, 37% HL and 33% NHW) who participated in a laboratory food intake study. Using a randomized cross-over design, ad libitum food consumption was measured following control/relaxation and social-evaluative stress conditions. Food intake was indexed as consumed calories, added sugars and solid fats. The effect of laboratory conditions on food intake varied by race/ethnicity, such that AA consumed more energy following relaxation than following stress. For NHW and HL, food intake did not differ between conditions. To the best of our knowledge, these findings are the first to directly observe racial/ethnic differences in food intake in response to acute stress, which may contribute to obesity-related health disparities.

A Comprehensive Review of Almond Clinical Trials on Weight Measures, Metabolic Health Biomarkers and Outcomes, and the Gut Microbiota.

This comprehensive narrative review of 64 randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and 14 systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses provides an in-depth analysis of the effect of almonds on weight measures, metabolic health biomarkers and outcomes, and the colonic microbiota, with extensive use of figures and tables. Almonds are a higher energy-dense (ED) food that acts like a lower ED food when consumed. Recent systematic reviews and meta-analyses of nut RCTs showed that almonds were the only nut that had a small but significant decrease in both mean body mass and fat mass, compared to control diets. The biological mechanisms for almond weight control include enhanced displacement of other foods, decreased macronutrient bioavailability for a lower net metabolizable energy (ME), upregulation of acute signals for reduced hunger, and elevated satiety and increased resting energy expenditure. The intake of 42.5 g/day of almonds significantly lowered low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), 10-year Framingham estimated coronary heart disease (CHD) risk and associated cardiovascular disease (CVD) medical expenditures. Diastolic blood pressure (BP) was modestly but significantly lowered when almonds were consumed at >42.5 g/day or for >6 weeks. Recent RCTs suggest possible emerging health benefits for almonds such as enhanced cognitive performance, improved heart rate variability under mental stress, and reduced rate of facial skin aging from exposure to ultraviolet (UV) B radiation. Eight RCTs show that almonds can support colonic microbiota health by promoting microflora richness and diversity, increasing the ratio of symbiotic to pathogenic microflora, and concentrations of health-promoting colonic bioactives. Almonds are a premier healthy snack for precision nutrition diet plans.

Both Food Liking and Energy Density Influence Children’s Portion Selection

ObjectivesFood liking influences food choice and the most-liked foods are often energy dense. Previous studies found that both food liking and energy density predicted the size of portions selected by adults. To extend these findings, we investigated the independent and combined effects of food liking and energy density on portion selection in children. MethodsIn two laboratories, 67 children aged 7–16 years (49% girls; 16% with overweight or obesity) completed a computerized survey to assess characteristics of 20 common foods. Children were shown images of the foods and used 100-point scales to rate how much they liked the food (liking) and how much they would eat at a specified meal (portion selection). The energy density (ED) of the foods ranged from 0.3 to 4.9 kcal/g. The survey displayed five images of food amounts at 10%, 30%, 50%, 70%, and 90% of the scale. The portion size of the 50% image was used as the reference amount and was based on mean intake for similar aged children from a U.S. national survey. Individual energy needs were estimated using the Dietary Reference Intake equations. ResultsThere were independent effects of children’s liking ratings and food ED, which did not interact to influence portion selection (p = 0.21). Across all foods, food liking had a strong effect on the portion size selected (p < 0.0001); the magnitude of this effect depended on age (–0.04 ± 0.02; p = 0.015). Food energy density had a smaller effect (p = 0.04) that also depended on age (–0.39 ± 0.15; p = 0.010). Younger children selected larger portions (relative to the reference portion) from higher-ED foods than lower-ED foods; conversely, older children selected smaller portions from higher-ED foods. The effects of age remained significant when adjusted for individual energy needs. The effects on portion selection of either food liking or energy density were not influenced by children’s sex, BMI-for-age percentile or BMI z-score. ConclusionsThese results confirm that food liking and food ED are significant determinants of portion selection in children. The finding that liking affected portion selection even for low-ED foods has implications for promoting healthy eating habits in children. Serving larger portions of well-liked low-ED foods such as fruits and vegetables can be a strategy to promote children’s intake. Funding SourcesNCRR, NCATS, NIDDK.

Self-Reported Olfactory Dysfunction and Diet Quality: Findings From the 2011–2014 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES)

ObjectivesTo identify associations of self-reported olfactory dysfunction (OD) with attributes of diet quality in a nationally-representative sample of US adults. MethodsIn this cross-sectional study, we utilized self-reported taste and smell, and dietary data collected from participants 40 years and older (n = 6356) in the NHANES 2011–2014. In the home-interview, a taste and smell questionnaire asked about smell-related problems, treatments and related conditions. Dietary information was collected by trained dietary interviewers using an in-person 24-h dietary recall interview and an automated multi-pass method. Self-reported OD was based on 3 questions, and defined as affirmative response to either a smell problem in the last 12 months, worse ability to smell since age 25, or smelling phantom odors. Diet quality was assessed using the Healthy Eating Index 2015 (HEI-2015) and its adequacy and moderation components (higher scores indicating higher diet quality). Other qualitative attributes included energy density of all foods (kcal/g), % energy from fat, and added sugar. Independent associations between self-reported OD and dietary attributes were estimated with survey-weighted linear regression models adjusting for age, gender, race/ethnicity, education, income-poverty ratio, and chronic disease score (based on reported diabetes, cancer, stroke and heart attack). ResultsThe prevalence of OD was 22.3% (95% CI: 20.4%--24.2%) and the average HEI-2015 score was 53.2 (0.4 SE). Compared to those without OD, adults with OD had higher energy density diets and higher % of energy from total fat, saturated fat and added sugar. Adjusted βs (95% CI) reflecting mean differences between those with and without OD were 0.06 (0.00, 0.12) for energy density of foods, 0.45 (0.10, 0.80) for % energy from saturated fat, 0.94 (0.19, 1.69) for % energy from total fat, and 0.96 (0.27, 1.65) for % energy from added sugar. Additionally, OD was significantly associated with lower scores on the moderation component of the HEI-2015 [βs (95% CI) = –0.62 (–1.19, –0.05). ConclusionsThese findings may help inform dietary screening and recommendations for adults who perceive OD, including those experiencing transient or persistent smell loss with COVID-19. Funding SourcesNIDCD; NCATS.

Dietary Intake Patterns, Nutrient Adequacy and Associated Factors in a Multi-Ethnic Caribbean Population

Abstract Objectives To evaluate the distribution and correlates of foods consumed among persons 18–65 years. Methods Participants completed a questionnaire consisting of dietary, demographic and lifestyle items. Anthropometry was self reported with 15% of participants having weight and heights measured using recommended procedures. Dietary intakes were analyzed for nutrient composition using the NutriGenie 7.0 software. Foods were categorized by the level of processing as unprocessed/minimally processed or processed/ultra-processed. Inadequate intakes were categorized as energy-adjusted nutrient intakes &amp;lt; estimated average reference intake (EAR) or average intakes (AI) according to the Institute of Medicine 2006 recommendations. Dietary patterns were determined by principal component analysis (PCA). The study was approved by The University of the West Indies Ethics Committee. Participation was voluntary follow oral and written consent Results Altogether, 11783 persons (females = 6743; males 5040) participated in the study. Approximately 72.5% of participants reported habitual plausible energy intakes (i.e., a Goldberg ratio of 1.35–2.40). Mean calorie intakes were higher in males than females (2771 ± 674 vs. 2270 ± 599 kcals; P &amp;lt; 0.001). Persons of South Asian- and Mixed-descents were more likely that those of African-descent to report plausible intakes of calories. PCA reveal three predominate dietary intake patterns designated ‘Typical’, ‘Fruit and Vegetables’, and ‘Prudent’ that explain 44% of the variance in nutrient adequate diets. Process/ultra-process foods accounted for 83% of calories consumed and 60–80% of micronutrient intakes with the exception of potassium, vitamin C, folate and fibre. Overall nutrient inadequacies were noted for potassium, magnesium, vitamins D, E, &amp;lt; K and fibre; and vitamin B12 and iron among females. Conclusions Among participants process/ultra-processed foods were the main sources of nutrients. Furthermore participants may be at risk for inadequate intakes of key nutrients. Our food policy needs to create an environment that fosters availability and consumption of nutrient- rather that energy-dense foods. Funding Sources Self funded.

Systems genetic analysis of binge-like eating in a C57BL/6J x DBA/2J-F2 cross.

Binge eating is a heritable trait associated with eating disorders and refers to the rapid consumption of a large quantity of energy-dense food that is, associated with loss of control and negative affect. Binge eating disorder is the most common eating disorder in the United States; however, the genetic basis is unknown. We previously identified robust mouse inbred strain differences between C57BL/6J and DBA/2J in binge-like eating of sweetened palatable food in an intermittent access, conditioned place preference paradigm. To map the genetic basis of changes in body weight and binge-like eating (BLE) and to identify candidate genes, we conducted quantitative trait locus (QTL) analysis in 128 C57BL/6J x DBA/2J-F2 mice combined with PheQTL and trait covariance analysis in GeneNetwork2 using legacy BXD-RI trait datasets. We identified a QTL on Chromosome 18 influencing changes in body weight across days in females (log of the odds [LOD]=6.3; 1.5-LOD: 3-12 cM) that contains the candidate gene Zeb1. We also identified a sex-combined QTL influencing initial palatable food intake on Chromosome 5 (LOD=5.8; 1.5-LOD: 21-28 cM) that contains the candidate gene Lcorl and a second QTL influencing escalated palatable food intake on Chromosome 6 in males (LOD=5.4; 1.5-LOD: 50-59 cM) that contains the candidate genes Adipor2 and Plxnd1. Finally, we identified a suggestive QTL in females for slope of BLE on distal Chromosome 18 (LOD=4.1; p= 0.055; 1.5-LOD: 23-35 cM). Future studies will use BXD-RI strains to fine map loci and support candidate gene nomination for gene editing.

Body Mass, Physical Activity and Eating Habits Changes during the First COVID-19 Pandemic Lockdown in Poland.

The outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic caused a number of changes in social life around the world. In response to the growing number of infections, some countries have introduced restrictions that may have resulted in the change of the lifestyle. The aim of our study was to investigate the impact of the lockdown on body weight, physical activity and some eating habits of the society. The survey involving 183 people was conducted using a proprietary questionnaire. The mean age of the study participants was 33 ± 11 and mean height 169 ± 8 cm. An average increase in body weight was observed in 49.18% by 0.63 ± 3.7 kg which was the result of a decrease in physical activity and an increase in food consumption. We also observed a decrease in PAL from 1.64 ± 0.15 to 1.58 ± 0.13 and changes in the amount of food and individual groups of products consumption, including alcohol. Among the study participants who did not lose body mass, there was an average weight gain of 2.25 ± 2.5 kg. In conclusion, an increase of weight was shown in about half of the respondents in the study group which was associated with a decrease in physical activity and an increase in the consumption of total food and high energy density products.

Does exposure to socially endorsed food images on social media influence food intake?

Social norms can influence the consumption of high and low energy-dense (HED/LED) snack foods. Such norms could be communicated via social media, however, there is little experimental research investigating this possibility. This laboratory study aimed to investigate the acute effect of socially endorsed social media posts on participants' eating behaviour. Healthy women students (n = 169; mean age = 20.9; mean BMI = 23.3) were assigned to either a HED, LED or control condition, where they viewed three types of images (HED foods, LED foods and interior design as control), but only one type was socially endorsed (e.g. in the control condition, only interior design images were socially endorsed). Participants completed questionnaires and were also provided a snack buffet of grapes and cookies. One-way ANOVA revealed a significant main effect of condition on participants’ relative consumption of grapes (percentage of grapes consumed out of total food intake), for both grams and calories consumed (both ps < .05). Follow-up t-tests revealed that participants consumed a larger proportion of grapes (grams and calories) in the LED condition vs HED condition (all ps < .05), and a larger proportion of calories from grapes in the LED compared to control condition (p < .05). These findings suggest that exposure to socially endorsed images of LED food on social media could nudge people to consume more of, and derive more calories from these foods in place of HED foods. Further research is required to examine the potential application of these findings.

The New Hybrid Nutrient Density Score NRFh 4:3:3 Tested in Relation to Affordable Nutrient Density and Healthy Eating Index 2015: Analyses of NHANES Data 2013-16.

Background: Hybrid nutrient density scores are based on both nutrients and selected food groups. Objective: To compare the new hybrid nutrient-rich food NRFh 4:3:3 score to other nutrient-rich food (NRF) scores, energy density, and energy cost and to model the impact on the Healthy Eating Index (HEI-2015) of partially replacing less nutrient-rich with more nutrient-rich foods. Methods: Analyses were based on 5870 foods and beverages in the Food and Nutrient Database for Dietary Studies and on 24 h dietary recalls from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES 2013–16). The NRFh 4:3:3 model was based on four nutrients to encourage (protein fiber, potassium, MUFA + PUFA); three food groups to encourage (dairy, fruit, whole grains); and three nutrients to limit (saturated fat, added sugar, sodium). Ratings generated by NRFh 4:3:3 and by other NRF models were correlated with score components, energy density (kcal/100 g), and energy cost (USD/100 kcal). The impact on HEI-2015 of replacing foods in the lowest nutrient density tertile (T1) with top tertile (T3) foods at 10%, 20%, 30%, and 100% equicaloric replacement was modeled using NHANES 2013–16 dietary data by population subgroups. Results: The NRFh 4:3:3 model awarded higher scores to foods containing dairy, fruit, and whole grains and proportionately lower scores to vegetables when compared to the NRF 9.3 model. Higher NRF and NRFh nutrient density scores were linked to lower energy density and higher energy cost; however, both correlations were lower for the NRFh 4:3:3. Isocaloric replacement of bottom tertile with top tertile foods as rated by both models led to significantly higher HEI-2105 values, based on complete (100%) and on partial (10–30%) replacement. Conclusion: The new NRFh 4:3:3 model provides the basis for developing new metrics of affordable nutrient density. The model identified “best value” food categories that were both affordable and nutrient-rich. Total and partial replacement of low nutrient density with high nutrient density foods was associated with higher HEI-2015 scores, suggesting that even partial inclusion of more nutrient dense foods in the diet may have an important impact on total diet quality.

Exploring Strategies to Optimise the Impact of Food-Specific Inhibition Training on Children's Food Choices.

Food-specific inhibition training (FSIT) is a computerised task requiring response inhibition to energy-dense foods within a reaction-time game. Previous work indicates that FSIT can increase the number of healthy foods (relative to energy-dense foods) children choose, and decrease calories consumed from sweets and chocolate. Across two studies, we explored the impact of FSIT variations (e.g., different response signals, different delivery modes) on children’s food choices within a time-limited hypothetical food-choice task. In Study 1, we varied the FSIT Go/No-Go signals to be emotive (happy vs. sad faces) or neutral (green vs. red signs). One-hundred-and-fifty-seven children were randomly allocated to emotive-FSIT, neutral-FSIT, or a non-food control task. Children participated in groups of 4–15. No significant FSIT effects were observed on food choices (all values of p > 0.160). Healthy-food choices decreased over time regardless of condition (p < 0.050). The non-significant effects could be explained by lower accuracy on energy-dense No-Go trials than in previous studies, possibly due to distraction in the group-testing environment. In Study 2, we compared computer-based FSIT (using emotive signals) and app-based FSIT (using neutral signals) against a non-food control with a different sample of 206 children, but this time children worked one-on-one with the experimenter. Children’s accuracy on energy-dense No-Go trials was higher in this study. Children in the FSIT-computer group chose significantly more healthy foods at post-training (M = 2.78, SE = 0.16) compared to the control group (M = 2.02, SE = 0.16, p = 0.001). The FSIT-app group did not differ from either of the other two groups (M = 2.42, SE = 0.16, both comparisons p > 0.050). Healthy choices decreased over time in the control group (p = 0.001) but did not change in the two FSIT groups (both p > 0.300) supporting previous evidence that FSIT may have a beneficial effect on children’s food choices. Ensuring that children perform FSIT with high accuracy (e.g., by using FSIT in quiet environments and avoiding group-testing) may be important for impacts on food choices though. Future research should continue to explore methods of optimising FSIT as a healthy-eating intervention for children.