Energization Theory Research Articles

Energization of Charged Test Particles in Magnetohydrodynamic Fields: Waves versus Turbulence Picture

Direct numerical simulations of three-dimensional compressible magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) turbulence have been performed in order to study the relation between wave modes and coherent structures and the consequent energization of test particles. Moreover, the question of which is the main mechanism of this particle energization is rigorously discussed. In particular, using the same initial conditions, we analyzed the nonlinear and linear evolution of a turbulent state along with the case of randomized phases. Then, the behaviors of the linear and nonlinear simulations were compared through the study of the time evolution of particle kinetic energy and preferential concentration. Also, spatiotemporal spectra were used to identify the presence of wave modes and quantify the fraction of energy around the MHD modes in linear and nonlinear simulations. Finally, the variation of the correlation time of the external forcing is studied in detail along with the effect on the particle energization (and clustering) and the presence of wave modes. More specifically, particle energization tends to decrease when the fraction of linear energy increases, supporting the idea that energization by structures is the dominant mechanism for particle energization instead of resonance with wave modes as suggested by Fermi energization theory.

Effort as Assessed by Motivational Arousal in Identity-Relevant Tasks

A laboratory experiment investigated effort expenditure in an identity-relevant task. This research was guided by the hypothesis that high identity relevance per se does not automatically result in high effort. Extending J. W. Brehm's energization theory (Brehm, Wright, Solomon, Silka, & Greenberg, 1983), I predicted that high effort should be mobilized only if the task is high in both identity relevance and difficulty. This hypothesis was tested in a 2 × 2 factorial design in which identity relevance (relevant vs. irrelevant) and difficulty (easy vs. difficult) of a memory task were manipulated. The dependent variable, effort expenditure, was measured using physiological data (reactivity of heart rate and systolic blood pressure). These measures indicated, as expected, high effort expenditure only under the condition of an identity-relevant +difficult task, whereas the participants in all other conditions expended significantly less effort. By contrast, the analysis yielded no effects on self-reported activation and feeling states.

Effort as Assessed by Motivational Arousal in Identity-Relevant Tasks

A laboratory experiment investigated effort expenditure in an identity-relevant task. This research was guided by the hypothesis that high identity relevance per se does not automatically result in high effort. Extending J. W. Brehm's energization theory (Brehm, Wright, Solomon, Silka, & Greenberg, 1983), I predicted that high effort should be mobilized only if the task is high in both identity relevance and difficulty. This hypothesis was tested in a 2 × 2 factorial design in which identity relevance (relevant vs. irrelevant) and difficulty (easy vs. difficult) of a memory task were manipulated. The dependent variable, effort expenditure, was measured using physiological data (reactivity of heart rate and systolic blood pressure). These measures indicated, as expected, high effort expenditure only under the condition of an identity-relevant +difficult task, whereas the participants in all other conditions expended significantly less effort. By contrast, the analysis yielded no effects on self-reported activation and feeling states.

Determinants of the Magnitude of Goal Valence: The Interactive Effects of Need, Instrumentality, and the Difficulty of Goal Attainment

An experiment was conducted in which subjects could earn either a high (14/15) or a low (1/15) chance of winning a McDonald's Big Mac hamburger by successfully performing a difficult or very difficult memorization task. During the morning hours prior to the experimental session, half the subjects did not eat (high need) whereas the rest did (low need). As predicted, anticipatory ratings of the attractiveness of the hamburger increased across task difficulty for subjects in high need given the high chance and decreased across task difficulty for subjects in low need given the high chance. Furthermore, ratings were low and unaffected by task difficulty for the low-need subjects given the low chance. An unexpected increase in attractiveness ratings among subjects in high need given the low chance provided the impetus for a second experiment. In this study, subjects, all of whom were in high need, were given either an extremely high (79/80) or an extremely low 0/80) chance of winning the hamburger given success on the difficult or very difficult task. With this stronger manipulation, the attractiveness ratings of the hamburger increased as a function of task difficulty for subjects given the high' chance and, unlike the first experiment, decreased modestly as a function of task difficulty for subjects given the low chance. Results of the two experiments are discussed in terms of the energization theory of motivation.

Difficulty as a Determinant of Interpersonal Appeal: A Social-Motivational Application of Energization Theory

This experiment investigated the hypothesis, derived from energization theory, that a target person's interpersonal appeal should vary nonmonotonically with the difficulty of establishing a favorable relationship with her or him. Male subjects learned that it would be easy, difficult, or impossible to persuade a woman to choose them as a co-worker. As expected, those who believed it would be difficult to be selected appraised the woman more favorably than did those who believed it would be easy or impossible to be selected. The study also examined, and confirmed, the prediction that appraisals of the woman would be at least as favorable under conditions where the difficulty of persuading her was not known as under conditions where the difficulty of persuading her was high, but possible. Findings are discussed in terms of the perennial question of whether there is interpersonal advantage in making oneself hard-to-get.

The Role of Cost in Generating Expectations and Value: A Personal Equity-Comparison Theory Analysis

Four experiments were conducted to explore the relationship between cost and compensatory expectations. The results of the first three experiments indicated that a moderate level of cost or effort experiences can increase perceivers' expectations about the positivity of an event, whereas a relatively severe cost experience can constrain perceivers' ability to compensate. In Experiment 4, perceivers' ability to compensate for a cost experience was influenced by the properties of the evaluated event. These results were obtained in a noninstrumental setting-a setting in which compensation was not promised. We discuss how cost experiences derived from justice violations influence the compensatory process. Finally, we discuss how the theory (personal equity-comparison theory) that generated these results differs from cognitive-dissonance and energization theory.

Desire for Outcomes That are More and Less Difficult to Attain: Analysis in Terms of Energization Theory

This article considers the questions of when and in what manner availability information affects outcome appraisals from the perspective of Brehm's (e.g., J. W. Brehm & Self, 1989) energization theory of motivation. The theory implies that there frequently will be a connection between one factor that should determine outcome availability-instrumental task difficulty-and outcome attractiveness. Specifically, immediately prior to and during task performance, the subjective appeal of an outcome should increase with task demand up to a certain level of difficulty. Beyond that level of difficulty, the subjective appeal of the outcome should be relatively low. The theory also suggests that factors such as scarcity, a motive to see oneself as unique, and a motive to restore freedom (reactance) may have motivational effects that are different from those commonly assumed.

Incentive Strength, Need State, Instrumental Task Difficulty, and the Magnitude of Goal Valence

Two experiments were performed to assess the effects of incentive strength, need state, and instrumental task difficulty on goal valence. In Experiment 1, subjects faced either an easy or a difficult task in order to avoid having to listen to aversive radio static. For some the radio static was to be loud, and for others it was to be soft. Anticipatory ratings of noise unpleasantness were as theoretically predicted, increasing as a direct function of task difficulty, but only when the stronger incentive (i.e., loud noise) was expected. In the second experiment, again subjects faced either an easy or a difficult instrumental task, but this time in an effort to win a McDonald's Big Mac™. For several hours before the experimental session, some of the subjects did not eat and the others did. In line with expectations, ratings of the attractiveness of the hamburger increased with instrumental task difficulty for subjects who had not eaten and were low and relatively uniform for those who had eaten. Results of the two experiments are discussed in terms of Brehm's energization theory of motivation.

Avoidant control difficulty and aversive incentive appraisals: Additional evidence of an energization effect

There is evidence that certain physiological and subjective indices of stress are relatively great when control over aversive outcomes is moderately difficult and relatively reduced when control over such outcomes is either easy or impossible. A possible explanation is suggested by Brehm's recent theory of motivation, which asserts that energy mobilization and the perceived unpleasantness of an aversive event will (a) increase with the difficulty of avoidant behavior so long as avoidance is believed to be possible and worthwhile, and (b) be low when avoidant behavior is impossible, not worthwhile, or simply unavailable. This article reports two experiments that examined appraisals of an aversive incentive under conditions where avoidance was expected to be easy, difficult, and impossible. The first demonstrated the complete nonmonotonic pattern of appraisals predicted by the energization theory, something that has proved elusive in previous investigations. The second study demonstrated this as well and, in addition, showed a correspondence between subjects' incentive appraisals and their cardiovascular responses immediately before and during an avoidance task period. Implications and alternative interpretations are discussed.