Endowed Schools Research Articles

Defending educational independence

A little over a century ago Edward Thring, Headmaster of Uppingham, decided to organise the defence of independent schools against the threatened intervention of Mr. Gladstone's Government. The threat was prompted by the Taunton Commission, whose report had been published in 1868, which recommended the setting up of a permanent national body to reform the so‐called endowed schools. This body would have power to alter existing educational trusts and schemes of school government, to set up new trusts, and to reform governing bodies.

Feminists and Bureaucrats: A Study in the Development of Girls' Education in the Nineteenth Century

A radical measure, the Endowed Schools Act of 1869, empowered Commissioners to prise endowment from the old grammar schools and to set up, for the first time, grammar schools for girls. Sheila Fletcher shows how, in practice, such attempts met determined opposition and argues that what was actually secured for girls depended largely on the zeal and persistence of the civil servants administering the Act. The first of these, the Endowed Schools Commissioners, presided over by Gladstone's friend and relative Lord Lyttelton, were staunch supporters of Women's education, but zeal proved their undoing. In 1874 they were dismissed by the Conservatives and the working of the Act was placed in the 'safe' hands of the Charity Commissioners. Feminist concern that girls would suffer from this changeover proved well founded; their share in endowments fell sharply in the reign of the Charity Commissioners which lasted until the end of the century. Indeed, the contrast between the two Commissions highlights the extent to which progress in an area dear to the heart of the women's movement was determined by administrators.

“A source of much rational entertainment”

“A certain degree of mathematical science, and indeed no inconsiderable degree, is perhaps more widely diffused in England, than in any other country in the world. The Ladies’ Diary, with several other periodicals and popular publications of the same kind, are the best proofs of this assertion. In these, many curious problems, not of the highest order indeed, but still having a considerable degree of difficulty, and far beyond the mere elements of science are to be met with; and the great number of ingenious men who take a share in proposing and answering these questions, whom one has never heard of anywhere else, is not a little surprising. Nothing of the same kind, we believe, is to be found in any other country.”These words of John Playfair’s are quoted by R. C. Archibald in his survey of the “minor English mathematical serials” which appeared in the celebratory 200th issue of this Gazette. Archibald describes how, early in the eighteenth century, serials containing elementary mathematical problems began to appear. Thus, during a century or more when mathematics had still to establish itself in the curriculum of the country’s leading endowed schools, numerous attempts were made to interest the ‘reading’ public in the subject and to serve those readers who were already ‘scientific’. An earlier, extensive survey of such publications was undertaken in the Mechanics Magazine (1848-1853) by T. T. Wilkinson [3] (who also wrote, inter alia, on that arcane (to two Yorkists!) subject “The origin and progress of the study of geometry in Lancashire”). Little, however, appears to have been done in recent years to examine these early attempts to diffuse mathematical knowledge: to study the mathematics contained in such periodicals and columns, how it was learned and enjoyed, and the people who set and solved the problems. This, in a small way, is what is attempted in this investigation. As our subject we chose to study the mathematical column which appeared in the York Courant during the early years of the nineteenth century.

Education in the West of England 1066-1548: Cornwall, Devon, Gloucestershire, Somerset, Wiltshire

List of Maps and Text Figures Preface List of Abbreviations Introduction Medieval Schools Distribution and Continuity Institutions and Endowments Masters, Pupils and their Work Higher Education The Reformation Conclusion 1. Five Cities and their Schools 2. Towns and Villages with Schools, but not Endowed 3. Endowed Schools and Chantry Schools 4. Education in Religious Houses Bibliography Index

The origins of cooptation to membership of local education committees

t is still sometimes said that county and county borough councils first entered on the task of running the local education service under the Balfour Act of 1902 as successors to the school boards which were then being abolished. Yet before 1902 these multi-purpose local authorities were engaged in the local administration of education. Some of them had begun to move into this work within a year of their being set up under the County Councils Act of 1888. The Education Act of 19o2 required every county and county borough council to establish a statutory committee through which it was to conduct its educational business. The committee was to be composed of councillors along with other persons coopted from the field of education. This general pattern of composition remains to the present day, having survived local government reform and other hazards of three-quarters of a century. Although it was only following the Act of 1902 that the Board of Education enforced the requirement that the committees should contain both members of the Council and outside persons, the great majority of county boroughs and a significant minority of county councils had already set up committees with their membership mixed in this way to discharge educational functions under the Technical Instruction Acts (1889-91). It is the purpose of this article to examine the composition of these committees in the years preceding and immediately following the Act of 1902 and to give some indication of the degree of continuity which existed between practice under the new measure and what had already become customary. In one sense this is yet another example of the way in which the state has often begun by permitting local authorities to adopt a practice and has then moved on to the next stage of enforcing it on all as a mandatory requirement. Existing facilities for secondary and technical education in this country in the second half of the nineteenth century were generally held to be quite inadequate. The reform of the endowed secondary schools and the work of the Science and Art Department were two ways in which successive governments attempted to meet the situation. The absence of suitable local government machinery at the county level, along with the religious and political controversy which surrounded the school boards, clearly 258

Schools of Public Health: Their Doing and Undoing

The heretofore untold story of Abraham Flexner's role in the establishment of the first endowed schools of public health (Johns Hopkins and Harvard) provides an unusual window through which to view the historic struggle of public health doctors to resolve their identity problem. They have become a profession, nominally a part of and yet fundamentally different from that of the physician in patient care. Nonetheless, the primary qualification for leadership in public health still is considered an M.D. degree rather than a Dr.P.H. or some equivalent. The author analyzes the characteristic inability of public health leaders to support their grand visions in times critical for decision, and calls on the modern community health educator, planner, and organizer to face the explicit question that all but a few of his public health forebears have sidestepped: Is public health a brance of medicine? Are education and training for clinical medicine desirable preparation for a career in public health, or does this simply doom one essential profession to remain subordinate to another?

Educational Opportunity in Tudor and Stuart England

A GUARDED OPTIMISM seems to govern most appraisals of Tudor and Stuart education. Some writers have been so impressed by achievements of period, especially of years 1560 to 1640, they see not only an ferment involving an increase in number of schools but also an expansion of opportunities which brought schooling within reach of hitherto deprived lower members of society. The expansion of printing as well as expansion of education leads R. D. Altick to suggest, that in Tudor and Stuart eras ability to read was more democratically distributed among English people than it would again be until at least end of eighteenth century. (1) W. A. L. Vincent asserts in The Grammar Schools; their continuing tradition 1660-1714 that, the first sixty years of seventeenth century was period when grammar schools of England and Wales flourished, and when education of sort preparatory to university was available to all who wished to avail themselves of it. (2) Even more enthusiastic in this vein is W. K. Jordan, who claims, in The Charities of Rural England, by 1660 a widespread and well-endowed system of education has been created within reach of any poor and able boy who thirsted for knowledge and who aspired to escape grip of poverty. (3) Other writers are more cautious. It is widely agreed there was quickening of interest in education and an unprecedented expansion of facilities in sixteenth and seventeenth century England. The age of Elizabeth and early Stuarts in particular, characterized by Lawrence Stone as one of educational revolution, saw more newly endowed schools, more freelance teachers, and more students proceeding to higher education than in centuries before or after. (4) But who took part in this expansion, who benefitted from it, and for whom it was intended are still vexed and open questions. While scale of revolution is beginning to be known, its social dimensions remain unclear. Joan Simon, in Education and Society in Tudor England, points to

Endowed schools in the diocese of Lichfield and Coventry 1660–99

(1975). Endowed schools in the diocese of Lichfield and Coventry 1660–99. History of Education: Vol. 4, No. 2, pp. 5-20.

The Reform of the Endowed Schools: the work of the Northamptonshire Educational Society 1854–1874

The Reform of the Endowed Schools: the work of the Northamptonshire Educational Society 1854–1874

The Rise of a Central Authority for English Education

1. The years of incipient state intervention 2. The period of Treasury grants-in-aid 3. The Education Department: the formative decade 4. The Education Department: the Lingen era 5. The Education Department: the years of expansion 6. The Education Department: the final phase 7. The Science and Art Department: 'South Kensington' in embryo 8. The Science and Art Department: Cole's kingdom 9. The Science and Art Department: Commanding Officer, Major-General Sir John Donnelly, K.C.B. 10. The Charity Commission: from Brougham to Taunton 11. The Charity Commission: the rule of the Triumvirate 12. The Charity Commission: The Endowed Schools Department 13. The establishment of the Board of Education 14. Retrospect.

Scientific studies in the public schools and endowed grammar schools in the 19th century: the evidence of the Royal Commissions

Scientific studies in the public schools and endowed grammar schools in the 19th century: the evidence of the Royal Commissions

A History of Loughborough Endowed Schools

A History of Loughborough Endowed Schools

Some Sources for the History of the Endowed Schools Commission, 1869-1900

t is generally agreed among educational historians that the establishment of the Endowed Schools Commission in 1869 following the Report of the Taunton Commission (1864-68)1 on the state of schools offering an education above that of elementary led to many changes in secondary education in the last 30 years of the nineteenth century. Although most writers refer to the Commission, there has been little systematic attempt so far to examine its work in detail. It is hoped to show here some of the sources which are available for making such a study. Briefly, the tasks of the Endowed Schools Commission were to redistribute charitable endowments which were not being fully utilized and to widen the areas which would receive benefits from them; to ensure that schools were put on a sound financial footing; to establish the 'grade' of a school in a given area; to reform governing bodies and trustees; to destroy the Church qualification for headmasters, assistant masters and pupil entry; and to provide in the schemes for boys of ability the opportunity of benefiting from the reformed schools through exhibitions and scholarships. This enormous task was to be completed in 3 years in the first instance by 3 full-time Commissioners and a number of Assistant Commissioners. The Commission itself, the brainchild of a Liberal Government, was destroyed by Disraeli after the Conservative victory in 1874. Nevertheless, the work of the Commission was carried on on similar lines as a Department of the Charity Commission, but retaining its own identity and staff. On the creation of the Board of Education in 1899, the officers of the Endowed Schools Department were absorbed into the Secondary Branch of the Education Department. Part 2 of the original Endowed Schools Act 1869 envisaged the creation of an Educational Council, consisting of University representatives and Crown nominees, working through Provincial Councils which would cover the whole country. Under this section of the Act, endowed schools could have been examined in any subject by the Council's inspectors and a Teachers' Registration Council was to have been set up. This part of the Bill was bitterly attacked and subsequently dropped, 1 See 'Sources for the History of the English Grammar School-II', W. E. Tate, in

Some sources for the history of the endowed schools commission, 1869–1900

Some sources for the history of the endowed schools commission, 1869–1900

Cost of undergraduate medical instruction in an endowed school.

Stimulated by the analysis of the cost of undergraduate medical education in state-supported schools by President Wells of Indiana, 1 and his challenge that endowed medical schools also should publish their costs and not hide their budgets from the public, we have attempted this task for Duke University School of Medicine and Duke Hospital. A study of the costs of undergraduate medical education is especially important at the present time, since not only is a cooperative survey of medical schools being conducted by the Council on Medical Education and Hospitals of the American Medical Association and the Association of American Medical Colleges but also the possibility of federal financial assistance to medical education would require an accounting of present expenditures. Furthermore, all the schools, both state and privately endowed, are in financial straits. 2 A third reason for compiling these figures is that the medical schools have a responsibility to

THE PEDIATRICIAN AND THE PUBLIC

TWO letters are presented which take opposing views of federal aid for medical education and for pediatric education in particular. The first of these is from Alan Valentine, LL.D., President, University of Rochester, N.Y. Dr. Valentine read a paper on the financing of the privately endowed medical schools before the 1948 Annual Congress on Medical Education and Licensure. (J.A.M.A. 137:1, 1948.) He is eminently qualified to discuss this subject. His extraordinarily able and realistic presentation of the current and future financial needs of medical schools concludes with an answer to the contrary view of Dr. William C. Black. (Pediatrics 1:561, April, 1948.) The second letter is from Dr. Thomas O. Gamble, Professor of Obstetrics, Albany Medical College, Albany, N.Y. Certain aspects of Dr. Gamble's letter require comment. In his third paragraph, Dr. Gamble quotes incompletely from the ICH Committee Report (Pediatrics 1:524, 1948) as follows: "It was finally agreed (Ed. note: i.e., by the ICH Committee) that neither the U. S. Children's Bureau nor the U. S. Public Health Service should be the administrative agency, but that the matter should be determined by the Federal Security Administrator, whose agency includes both the U. S. Children's Bureau and the U. S. Public Health Service. The correct quotation is: "It was finally agreed that neither the U. S. Children's Bureau nor the U. S. Public Health Service should be named the administrative agency . . . (etc.)." The position of the ICH Committee was and is that the Federal Security Agency, which already administers grants-in-aid for study and training in several fields of medicine, would be the logical administrative agency; it was not considered within the province of the ICH Committee to recommend which branch of this agency should be designated by the administrator. There was no attempt at "camouflage," as suggested by Dr. Gamble. Dr. Gamble next attacks the recommended composition of the Council on Pediatric Education. He suggests that the Academy should say to the Federal Security Administrator:

Secularization in Education

That the majority of American colleges, even those started under strongly Christian auspices, have become secularized with amazing rapidity—within the last fifty or sixty years— is an obvious fact to be deplored or applauded according to the point of view. For the natural sciences which fought against the domination of theology secularization is, of course, a victory and one so complete that not only does religion not dominate, it is not accorded equality. This is the more striking in the highly endowed schools of the Atlantic seaboard because they were founded as theological seminaries, Harvard to ‘supply the spiritual needs of the colonies’, Yale as a Calvinist stronghold when Harvard became Unitarian, Amherst to prepare ‘poor boys to preach the Gospel of Jesus Christ’. Until 1800 all of the Fellows of the governing body of Harvard were clergymen; after 1884 no ministers were included. In 1800 the Professor of Divinity at Yale, Dr Wright, was also president of the college; by 1900 such a combination had become unthinkable.The women’s colleges have a similar history. It is interesting to trace the change in religion at Mt Holyoke, for example, from the dogmatic Calvinism of Mary Lyon (which included a belief in total depravity) to the present day Universalism, a religion broad enough, according to the address given in 1937 by the retiring secretary of the Y.W.C.A., to include Catholic, Protestant and Jew in the worship of the one God, Father of all.As the theological faculties declined in dignity and influence the scientific faculties increased.

Sir William Jackson Pope 1870-1939

William Jackson Pope was the eldest son of William and Alice Pope, who at the time of his birth (31 March 1870) lived in New North Road, in the City of London. On leaving the Cowper Street Endowed School, Pope proceeded to the Finsbury Technical College where he was one of H. E. Armstrong’s earliest pupils. He followed Armstrong to the Central Institution (now the City and Guild’s College of the Imperial College of Science and Technology), where the scheme of scientific studies, having no reference to outside examining bodies, did not lead to a university degree but gave a rigorous training in chemistry, crystallography under (now) Sir Henry A. Miers and in research methods admirably suited to Pope’s genius. From that time dated the remarkable friendship between H. E. Armstrong and Pope, which was only broken by the former’s death in 1937.

Sir William Pope, K.B.E., F.R.S.

WILLIAM JACKSON POPE, the great chemist, was the eldest son of William and Alice Pope who at the time of his birth (March 31, 1870) lived in New North Road in the City of London. On leaving the Cowper Street Endowed School, Pope proceeded to the Finsbury Technical College, where he was one of H. E. Armstrong's earliest pupils. He followed Armstrong to the Central Institution (now the City and Guilds’ College of the Imperial College of Science and Technology), where the scheme of scientific studies having no reference to outside examining bodies did not lead to a university degree but gave Pope a rigorous training in chemistry, classical crystallography (under H. A. Miers) and in research methods admirably suited to his genius. From that time dated the unique friendship between Armstrong and Pope which was only broken by the former's death in 1937.

The Worldʼs First Endowed School of Nursing

T HE development of ideas and the growth of institutions do not follow a gradual and uniform course. Principles generally accepted today have all been upheld long ago by people who were misjudged and often persecuted. So it is with modern medicine. Everyone is aware of the decisive part played in it by a heroine like Florence Nightingale. The role of another remarkable though lesscelebrated woman is less known, although she was an impassioned advocate, some years earlier, of many of the ideas we now cherish, but which met at first with great opposition. Valerie Boissier, a young Swiss girl, by marriage Countess Agenor de Gasparin, has left a name as the author of numerous works, some of which received favorable notice from the French Academy. Her influence was still greater through co6peration with her husband, a well-known politician and public speaker, who supported all liberal causes, both-by voice and pen, notably in the French Parliament.2 In the middle of last century, the Gasparins were led to take part in a lively debate on the subject of the deaconess motherhouses which at that time were appearing in France and Switzerland on the lines of the institution founded by Theodor Fliedner at Kaiserswerth in 1836. Although an ardent and convinced Christian, Countess de Gasparin ex-