Endemic Primate Species Research Articles

THE HABITAT CHARACTERISTICS OF JAVAN LUTUNG (Trachypithecus auratus) IN BANDEALIT COASTAL FOREST AT MERU BETIRI NATIONAL PARK, EAST JAVA, INDONESIA

Javan lutung (Trachypithecus auratus) is an endemic primate species which mostly occurs in protected areas, such as the Bandealit Resort of Meru Betiri National Park (MBNP), East Java, Indonesia. However, scientific information related to the habitat characteristics of T. auratus in this resort is limited. Therefore, the aim of this study is to investigate the habitat characteristics of T. auratus based on the vegetation stratification in the Bandealit coastal forest of MBNP. This research was conducted in March, April, May, and September 2022 using the scan sampling methods at two sites, including Site I (Camping Ground Block) and Site II (Wisma Block). The data on tree species was collected using a plot method (40 m x 20 m). Furthermore, we used the Spatially Explicit Individual-based Forest Simulator (SexI-FS) version 2.1.0 to construct the stratification profile. Based on the results, there were 17 individuals of T. auratus found in two sites along the observation. This species is recorded as occupying seven tree species, including Alstonia scholaris, A. spectabilis, Calophyllum inophyllum, Dracontomelon sp., Pongamia pinnata, Syzigium sp. and Terminalia catappa. According to stratification, T. auratus was found in Stratum B (21-30 m) to Stratum C (5-20 m) at all sites. Furthermore, this species was widely distributed in Stratum C for locomotion, foraging, social activities and self-protection. Meanwhile, T. auratus was observed using A. spectabilis in Stratum B as a sleeping tree in the afternoon and evening. These results can be the basis for in-situ conservation strategies for T. auratus species in MBNP, particularly for habitat management based on occupied vegetation.

Habitat suitability of Proboscis Monkey Nasalis larvatus Wurmb. in Muara Kaman Sedulang Nature Reserve, East Kalimantan

Proboscis monkey (Nasalis larvatus Wurmb.) is an endemic primate species to Borneo’s island. Muara Kaman Sedulang Nature Reserve is one of protected area for this species in the island, but it’s riverine habitat is largely lost by forest fires and conversion for aquaculture, agriculture and settlements. A conservation action in the area needs spatial information regarding the habitat suitability of proboscis monkey. This study aimed to project a spatial model for habitat suitability of proboscis monkey in the reserve through species distribution modelling (SDM) using the Maximum Entropy (MaxEnt), based on the species’ occurrence records and environmental predictors. The results showed that suitable habitat for proboscis monkey was 3,410.27 ha (5.22% of the nature reserve total area). Model performance evaluation shows an accuracy of the Area Under Curve (AUC) value of 0.940, which is a very good category. Jackknife-test results showed the presence of secondary swamp forest (40.8%), distance from water bodies (25.9%), land cover (12.4%), secondary forest (6.3%) and mixed gardens (5.1%) are five variables that significantly contribute to the distribution of proboscis monkeys in the reserve. This study provides suggestions for conservation of proboscis monkey in remaining suitable habitat, which include local people involvement, monitoring and habitat restoration.

Food Composition and Preference of Captive Javan Langur (Trachypithecus auratus) in Gembira Loka Zoo, Yogyakarta

Javan langur (Trachypithecus auratus) is one of the endemic primate species of Indonesia. Its populations were exposed to extinction risk caused by human activities. Thus, conservation efforts such as ex-situ conservation were needed to preserve this species. One of the javan langur ex-situ conservation in Yogyakarta is the Gembira Loka Zoo. In captivity, animals must be guaranteed to be free from hunger and stay nourished. One aspect to support this welfare is food supply. Therefore, this study aimed to identify the food composition and analyze the correlation between food preference and feeding duration of each food item group. We used scan animal sampling method with five minutes intervals to observe the behavior of seven individuals of captive javan langurs. The result showed that there are three groups of food (fruit, vegetable, and leaf) provided daily to javan langurs in Gembira Loka Zoo. All the individuals spent most their time to consumed food from vegetable group, except for infant female who had the highest duration in the leaf group. In addition, based on which food they consumed first every feeding time (preference food), javan langurs preferred vegetable over fruit and leaf. Based on the Spearman correlation test, there are positive correlations of duration and preference of feeding except for leaf groups. This result was different from the natural food composition of javan langurs which mostly consisted of leaves. This study might help the zoo to consider the food items provided for the animals to increase animal welfare.

Knowledge, Perception, and Participation of Proboscis Monkey Habitat Buffer Village Communities, Curiak Island Area

Background: Indonesia has the third largest biodiversity of primate fauna in the world with 61 species, and there are 38 endemic primate species from these 61 species. One of the endangered endemic primates is Proboscis Monkey which is the mascot of the fauna of South Kalimantan. Proboscis proboscis conservation efforts are the responsibility of all parties, including the community. Community concern and participation are indicators of the success of proboscis monkey conservation. Aim: This study aims to analyze the condition of the socio-cultural aspects of the local community around the proboscis monkey habitat in the Curiak Island area through knowledge, perception and community participation. Method: Descriptive method with purposive sampling was used. Meanwhile, the research instruments were in the form of questionnaires distributed to the public and direct interviews. Findings: The results of this study show that public knowledge of the existence of proboscis monkeys and their habitat on average exceeds 50%; people's perception of the existence of proboscis monkeys and their habitat on average exceeds 50%; and community participation in efforts to protect proboscis monkeys and their habitats by more than 80%.

Status of a second viable population of the Critically Endangered Delacour's langur in Viet Nam

AbstractOne of the three Critically Endangered and endemic primate species in Viet Nam, Delacour's langur Trachypithecus delacouri, is restricted to the north of the country. The largest remaining population is in Van Long Nature Reserve, Ninh Binh Province, and the second largest is in nearby Kim Bang Protection Forest, Ha Nam Province, with other populations believed to be too small for recovery. The population in Van Long has been well studied but the status of that of Kim Bang has not previously been adequately evaluated. To address this, a survey was conducted during 10 August–7 October 2018. In total, we recorded 13 groups comprising a total of at least 73 individuals, almost doubling the highest number reported in previous studies. We documented six new groups in Lien Son and Ba Sao communes in Kim Bang. Our findings indicate there is a high likelihood that Delacour's langur population in Kim Bang will recover and could be important for the long-term conservation of this Critically Endangered species. However, immediate and appropriate conservation measures need to be implemented to protect the population from major anthropogenic threats, namely poaching and habitat destruction, detected during our survey.

Limited Heredity Diversity of the Critically Endangered Guizhou Golden Monkeys

Guizhou golden monkey (Rhinopithecus brelichi) was a unique, endangered and endemic primate species in Guizhou Province. It was an isolated population caused by habitat loss and fragmentation due to the human disturbance in the recently 30 years in China, only distributed in Fanjingshan National Natural Reserve, Guizhou Province. To know the background with demonic population structure, we sequenced 867 bp of the mitochondrial DNA D-loop from 312 fresh fecal samples, results showed there 11 haplotypes among these samples, h was 0.517, π was 0.00413. It indicated that this species had the lowest genetic diversity among four golden monkeys in China and need strengthen the conversation concern for this species immediately.

Blood Biochemistry Reference Values of Javan Slow Loris (Nycticebus javanicus) in Rehabilitation Center

The Javan slow loris (Nycticebus javanicus) is an endemic primate species to Java Island, Indonesia. Currently, their conservation status is critically endangered due to habitat loss and the illegal wildlife trade. As a consequence of the pet trade, wild-caught slow lorises are confiscated or handed over to centers like IAR Indonesia Rescue Center. Rescued lorises present multiple health issues following stress, trauma, and miss-treatment after being kept as pets. During the medical evaluation, besides physical examination, blood biochemistry provides valuable diagnostic information. However, data on physiological values are unavailable and therefore interpretation of results is difficult. The objective of this study was to establish blood biochemistry reference values for wild, rehabilitant healthy adult Javan slow lorises in captivity. We anesthetized 20 individuals of Javan slow loris (10 males and 10 females) for pre-release check-up procedures. Blood samples were collected for blood biochemistry analysis on an in-house Vetscan VS2 (Zoetis), after which the results were statistically analyzed for mean and standard deviation. Results showed different values between the male and female group, however, they were not significant (p>0,05). Comparison with available biochemistry data (ZIMS) for other loris species in captivity: Nycticebus pygmaeus and Nycticebus coucang, did not show significant differences. Although the sample size of this study was limited, this study provides the first preliminary reference ranges for healthy adult wild, rehabilitant Javan slow loris in captivity. Further data collection is necessary for more accurate ranges and will be done during the future pre-release health check.

Distribution and population estimate of grizzled leaf monkeys in Mount Slamet, Central Java, Indonesia

Grizzled leaf monkey (Presbytis comata) or javan surili is an endemic primate species to Java. This species is categorized as Endangered on the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List. Data on population and distribution is still limited, especially in Central Java. Research on the population distribution of grizzled leaf monkey was carried out at the southern slope of Mount Slamet in Central Java. This research was aiming to explore the distribution and population estimate of grizzled leaf monkeys in the research area. Data were collected by using line transects (9 transects, 2 km length, 50 m wide, 6 repetitions) at 600-1200 m asl). The grizzled leaf monkeys were found in 9 transects. There were 72 individuals, consisted of 19 groups, with a population density of approximately 1.96 individuals/km2 for the estimated population. Habitat types used by the monkeys were secondary forest (53%), primary forest (40%), or crop farm (7%), on elevation range between 900-1000 m asl.

Enter the Matrix: Use of Secondary Matrix by Mouse Lemurs

Madagascar is home to many threatened and endemic primate species, yet this island has seen dramatic declines in lemur habitat due to forest loss. This forest loss has resulted in an increasingly fragmented forest landscape, with fragments isolated from each other by grasslands (i.e., matrix). The grassland matrix is not entirely homogeneous containing matrix elements such as isolated trees and shrubs and linear features such as drainage lines. Because most lemurs are predominantly arboreal, they may preferentially use matrix elements to facilitate dispersal between fragments for access to mates or reduce feeding competition, allowing gene flow between fragments of habitat. Therefore, it is important to understand to what degree they use the matrix. We investigated matrix use in two mouse lemurs, the grey mouse lemur (Microcebus murinus) and the golden-brown mouse lemur (Microcebus ravelobensis) in a fragmented landscape in northwest Madagascar. We tested the predictions that: (1) lemurs use matrix less often than forest fragments, (2) if they use the matrix, then they will preferentially use matrix elements compared to grassland, and (3) M. murinus will disperse into the matrix further than M. ravelobensis. In 2011, we visually surveyed line transects in four areas containing matrix elements and four adjacent forest fragments during nocturnal walks. In 2017, we set up traplines in four areas of the matrix containing matrix elements, three areas that were grassland, and six traplines in adjacent fragments. We compared the relative abundance of mouse lemurs in matrix transects to fragmented forest transects, and the relative abundance of captured lemurs in matrix elements, grassland, and fragment traplines. We found that encounter rates of mouse lemurs did not significantly differ between the matrix and fragmented forest transects or traplines. Our sample size was too low to determine if the mean distance from the forest was greater for either Microcebus spp. Our study highlights that mouse lemurs do use matrix elements and there may be interspecific differences in use. Further research is needed to confirm species-specific matrix use, why mouse lemurs use matrix, and how much matrix elements facilitate movement for each species in fragmented landscapes.

Altitude and human disturbance are associated with helminth diversity in an endangered primate, Procolobus gordonorum.

Gastrointestinal parasites colonizing the mammalian gut influence the host immune system and health. Parasite infections, mainly helminths, have been studied intensively in both humans and non-human animals, but relatively rarely within a conservation framework. The Udzungwa red colobus monkey (Procolobus gordonorum) is an endangered endemic primate species living in the Udzungwa Mountains of Tanzania, a global biodiversity hotspot. Since this endemic primate species is highly sensitive to human disturbance, here we investigate whether habitat type (driven by natural and human-induced factors) is associated with helminth diversity. Using standard flotation and sedimentation techniques, we analyzed 251 fecal samples belonging to 25 social groups from four different forest blocks within the Udzungwa Mountains. Five parasitic helminth taxa were recovered from Udzungwa red colobus, including Trichuris sp., Strongyloides fulleborni, S. stercoralis, a strongylid nematode and Colobenterobius sp. We used Generalized Linear Mixed Models to explore the contribution of habitat type, altitude and fecal glucocorticoid levels (as biomarkers of stress) in predicting gut parasite variation. Although some parasites (e.g., Trichuris sp.) infected more than 50% of individuals, compared to others (e.g., Colobenterobius sp.) that infected less than 3%, both parasite richness and prevalence did not differ significantly across forests, even when controlling for seasonality. Stress hormone levels also did not predict variation in parasite richness, while altitude could explain it resulting in lower richness at lower altitudes. Because human activities causing disturbance are concentrated mainly at lower altitudes, we suggest that protection of primate forest habitat preserves natural diversity at both macro- and microscales, and that the importance of the latter should not be underestimated.

Genetic and morphological diversity of mouse lemurs (Microcebus spp.) in northern Madagascar: The discovery of a putative new species?

Tropical forests harbor extremely high levels of biological diversity and are quickly disappearing. Despite the increasingly recognized high rate of habitat loss, it is expected that new species will be discovered as more effort is put to document tropical biodiversity. Exploring under-studied regions is particularly urgent if we consider the rapid changes in habitat due to anthropogenic activities. Madagascar is known for its extraordinary biological diversity and endemicity. It is also threatened by habitat loss and fragmentation. It holds more than 100 endemic primate species (lemurs). Among these, Microcebus (mouse lemurs) is one of the more diverse genera. We sampled mouse lemurs from several sites across northern Madagascar, including forests never sampled before. We obtained morphological data from 99 Microcebus individuals; we extracted DNA from tissue samples of 42 individuals and amplified two mitochondrial loci (cytb and cox2) commonly used for species identification. Our findings update the distribution of three species (Microcebus tavaratra, Microcebus arnholdi, and Microcebus mamiratra), including a major increase in the distribution area of M. arnholdi. We also report the discovery of a new Microcebus lineage genetically related to M. arnholdi. Several complementary approaches suggest that the newly identified Microcebus lineage might correspond to a new putative species, to be confirmed or rejected with additional data. In addition, morphological analyses showed (a) clear phenotypic differences between M. tavaratra and M. arnholdi, but no clear differences between the new Microcebus lineage and the sister species M. arnholdi; and (b) a significant correlation between climatic variables and morphology, suggesting a possible relationship between species identity, morphology, and environment. By integrating morphological, climatic, genetic, and spatial data of two northern Microcebus species, we show that the spatial distribution of forest-dwelling species may be used as a proxy to reconstruct the past spatial changes in forest cover and vegetation type.

Suitable habitat prediction of Sichuan snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus roxellana) and its implications for conservation in Baihe Nature Reserve, Sichuan, China.

As an endemic primate species with one of the highest priorities in wildlife conservation in China, Sichuan snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus roxellana) have undergone a sharp decline and range reduction in recent centuries. Here, we used maximum entropy modelling (MaxEnt) integrated with four types of environmental variables, including three biological climate variables (Bio17, precipitation of the driest quarter; Bio6, min. temperature of the coldest month; and Bio2, mean diurnal range), three topographic variables (altitude, slope, and aspect), two anthropogenic variables (Human Footprint Index and human disturbance), and three vegetation-related variables (enhanced vegetation index, normalized difference vegetation index, and Wet Index) to identify the spatial distribution of suitable habitats for Sichuan snub-nosed monkeys in Baihe Nature Reserve (BNR), which is located in the Minshan Mountains. The average training AUC of our model performance is 0.929 ± 0.003. The model predicted 9.6km2 of high suitability habitats and 14.1km2 of moderate suitability habitats for Sichuan snub-nosed monkeys, adding up to only 11.7% of the total area of concern for the study in the BNR. The top four variables ranked in the model (altitude, Human Footprint Index, human disturbance, and Bio17) accounted for relative gain contributions of 23.3%, 19.3%, 14.2%, and 13.4%, respectively. The predicted suitable habitats were confined to an altitude range of 1971-3198m, Human Footprint Index of mainly 3-5 values, low human disturbance (mainly livestock), and precipitation of the driest (or coldest) quarter of 9-22mm. Additionally, the suitable habitats were mainly distributed in the core zone (36.1%), buffer zone (26.8%), and experimental zone (29.5%). The remaining habitats (7.6%) were distributed in the 0.5-km buffer zone of the reserve border. The predicted suitable habitats indicated limited suitable habitat space for the Sichuan snub-nosed monkeys, with most of the suitable habitat distributed outside the core zone in the BNR. Our findings highlighted that human activities in all three functional zones could be the most negative factor on suitable habitat distribution of Sichuan snub-nosed monkeys in the BNR.

Genetic differentiation and diversity of the Bolivian endemic titi monkeys, Plecturocebus modestus and Plecturocebus olallae.

The genetic variability of New World primates is still poorly documented. We present the first genetic study on two threatened endemic titi monkey species in northern Bolivia (Plecturocebus modestus and Plecturocebus olallae) using six microsatellite markers to investigate genetic structure and variability of 54 individuals from two wild populations. A low level of genetic diversity was found (34 alleles in the total sampled population). Locus 1118 presented the greatest number of alleles. The mean number of alleles per locus in the total population was 5.6 and the average heterozygosity was 0.38 (range 0.12-0.88). The FIS value for the total population using all microsatellite loci shows a statistically significant heterozygote deficit. The inbreeding coefficients (FIS) were positive and significantly different from zero (0.064 for P. olallae and 0.213 for P. modestus). The genetic differentiation between populations (FST) was moderate with a pair-wise FST estimate of 0.14. Population structure analyses assigned the two populations to two differentiated clusters (K = 2). These results suggest that these two species with very close distributional ranges arose from a single population, and that they remain in a process of genetic differentiation and speciation. This study further underlines the urgent need for conservation actions for both endemic primate species.

A green racer snake (Philodryas nattereri, Colubridae) killed but not eaten by a blonde capuchin monkey (Sapajus flavius, Cebidae).

We report the killing of a snake (Philodryas nattereri, Colubridae) by a blonde capuchin monkey (Sapajus flavius, Cebidae). This endemic primate species from the northeast of Brazil includes vertebrates such as lizards and marsupials in its diet, but we can find no previously published record of an attack upon or consumption of snakes by this species of platyrhine monkey. During the attack, the group mobbed the snake, with individuals uttering agonistic vocalizations and displaying behaviors such as raising their tails, moving tree branches, piloerecting, and baring their teeth. An adult male monkey seized the snake, bit and twisted its body, thereby killing it; he then dropped the carcass onto tree branches, but did not consume it. This single event suggests that this Cebidae species may be able to distinguish dangerous from harmless snakes, and it also may be an example of a lethally violent reaction to a potential predator or competitor, exemplifying the plasticity and cognitive skills exhibited by genus Sapajus.

Small but wise: Common marmosets (Callithrix jacchus) use acoustic signals as cues to avoid interactions with blonde capuchin monkeys (Sapajus flavius).

Vocalizations are often used by animals to communicate and mediate social interactions. Animals may benefit from eavesdropping on calls from other species to avoid predation and thus increase their chances of survival. Here we use both observational and experimental evidence to investigate eavesdropping and how acoustic signals may mediate interactions between two sympatric and endemic primate species (common marmosets and blonde capuchin monkeys) in a fragment of Atlantic Rainforest in Northeastern Brazil. We observed 22 natural vocal encounters between the study species, but no evident visual or physical contact over the study period. These two species seem to use the same area throughout the day, but at different times. We broadcasted alarm and long distance calls to and from both species as well as two control stimuli (i.e., forest background noise and a loud call from an Amazonian primate) in our playback experiments. Common marmosets showed anti-predator behavior (i.e., vigilance and flight) when exposed to blonde capuchin calls both naturally and experimentally. However, blonde capuchin monkeys showed no anti-predator behavior in response to common marmoset calls. Blonde capuchins uttered long distance calls and looked in the direction of the speaker following exposure to their own long distance call, whereas they fled when exposed to their own alarm calls. Both blonde capuchin monkeys and common marmosets showed fear behaviors in response to the loud call from a primate species unknown to them, and showed no apparent response to the forest background noise. Common marmoset responses to blonde capuchin calls suggests that the latter is a potential predator. Furthermore, common marmosets appear to be eavesdropping on calls from blonde capuchin monkeys to avoid potentially costly encounters with them.

How conspecific primates use their habitats: Surviving in an anthropogenically-disturbed forest in Central Kalimantan, Indonesia

Kalimantan (Indonesian Borneo) is a biodiversity hotspot at risk because of severe forest loss, degradation and burning events. Habitat loss and anthropogenic altering of forest structures pose a threat to forest-dependent taxa, including multiple endemic primate species. Conservation management schemes may be enhanced by evaluating how forest-dependent primates use their habitat for fulfilling life-history requirements, the role of natural forest structures thereon, and any corresponding impacts from anthropogenic disturbance and modification of forests. We investigated how forest-structure variables and landscape scale anthropogenic disturbance factors influenced the life-history behaviours (sleeping, ranging and feeding) of two endemic and sympatric primate species, Presbytis rubicunda (red langur) and Hylobates albibarbis (Bornean agile gibbon), in Sabangau tropical peat-swamp forest, Central Kalimantan. We aimed to identify key factors that influence habitat suitability for both species, and determine the influence of similar factors when selecting habitat for various activities such as sleeping, feeding and ranging. GPS locational data for each behaviour were analysed in conjunction with forest-structure parameters present (derived from LiDAR, ALOS-PALSAR), landscape-scale habitat related factors, and proximity to landscape-scale disturbance factors including burned areas. A Maximum Entropy (MaxEnt) algorithm was employed for estimating habitat suitability for the different activities of each species based on the afore-mentioned variables. By using a combination of forest sub-class, structure and disturbance variables within the MaxEnt framework, distribution maps of suitable langur and gibbon sleeping, ranging and feeding habitats were produced. Langurs and gibbons had limited overlaps in terms of feeding, ranging and sleeping habitats. In all cases, landscape-scale variables including those related to landscape scale anthropogenic disturbance had the highest percentage contribution for explaining habitat suitability in comparison to forest-structure variables such as canopy heights (derived using LiDAR data). Additionally, variables influencing habitat selection varied between species; while langur feeding, ranging and sleeping were all influenced by distance from burned forests, gibbon sleeping habitat selection was influenced by distance from the forest edge, and ranging and feeding habitat selection was most affected by distance from burned areas. The insights gained from this study may help inform conservation management of these species and guide forest management strategies accordingly to ensure habitat structure is maintained to facilitate activities by sympatric primate species.

Prevalence and Co-Occurrence of Gastrointestinal Parasites in Nilgiri Langur (<i>Trachypithecus johnii</i>) of Fragmented Landscape in Anamalai Hills, Western Ghats, India

Habitat fragmentation is known to alter species composition, influence infection risk and disease emergence in the native species of fragmented landscapes. This study aimed at understanding the prevalence of gastrointestinal parasite in Nilgiri langur, an endemic primate species of the Western Ghats, India. We collected 283 faecal samples from 8 rainforest fragments of Anamalai Hills, Western Ghats and examined gastrointestinal parasites using faecal flotation and sedimentation techniques. A total of 13 gastrointestinal parasite taxa were recovered, which are known to infect humans and livestock. Parasite species richness was higher in disturbed forest fragments than undisturbed ones. We found Trichuris trichiura to be the most prevalent parasite taxa followed by Strongyloides sp. A negative association between Schistosoma sp. and Trichuris trichiura was also observed. Fragment size, proximity to human settlements and other habitat variables such as tree density, canopy cover and tree height did not show any significant relationship with parasitism in Nilgiri langur, which might be attributed to their ability to survive in a disturbed landscape.

Studi Populasi Owa Jawa (Hylobates moloch) di Lereng Gunung Slamet Jawa Tengah

Javanese Gibbon (Hylobates moloch) is the endemic primate species in Indonesia. IUCN - World Concervation has given this species an endangered status. The habitat Hylobates moloch’s were found at Slamet Mountain in Central Java. The study entitled "Study of Javanese Gibbon (Hylobates moloch) Population in Slopes of Slamet Mountain, Central Java" aimed to determine the number of population in slopes of Mount Slamet. This research was conducted in the exact line these July -November 2013, the survey method with stratified sampling base on line transect method was used in this research. Transects pathway in this study used existing pathways wich the passed and cut the contour of research sites. Javanese Gibbon (Hylobates moloch) obtained along the transect was calculated and analyzed using perpendiculars distance approach (DISTANCE 5.0’s software). Analysis by DISTANCE 5.0 showed that the density of Javanese Gibbon (Hylobates moloch) at Slamet Mountain in 170 km2 area was 0.26 individual/km2, coefficient of variation was 34.88 % , lower limit of 95 % confidence interval was 0.13365 to 0.51981. Based on the analysis, total number of javanese gibbon population at Slamet Mountain was 45 individuals of the density 0.26 individuals/km2.

Variations in the excretion patterns of helminth eggs in two sympatric mouse lemur species (Microcebus murinus and M. ravelobensis) in northwestern Madagascar.

Many factors can influence the parasite load of animal hosts, but integrative studies that simultaneously investigate several factors are still rare in many taxonomic groups. This study investigates the influence of host species, host population density, parasite transmission mode, sex, and two temporal (month, year) factors on gastrointestinal parasite prevalence and fecal egg counts of two endemic primate species from Madagascar, Microcebus ravelobensis and Microcebus murinus. A total of 646 fecal samples were available and analyzed from three dry seasons. Six different helminth egg morphotypes were found, and these were Subulura sp. (14.51 % prevalence), strongyle eggs (12.95 %), Ascaris sp. (7.94 %), Lemuricola sp. (0.17 %), and two forms of tapeworms (Hymenolepis spp.) (1.73 and 0.69 %). Coinfection with more than one egg type was observed in 21.22 % of the samples containing eggs. Multivariate analyses revealed that host species and sex did neither explain significant variation in the prevalence and fecal egg counts of parasites with direct life cycles (Ascaris sp., strongyle egg type, Lemuricola sp.) nor of arthropod-transmitted parasites (Subulura sp.). However, fecal egg counts of Subulura sp. differed significantly between study sites, and the prevalence of Subulura sp. and of parasites with direct life cycles was influenced by temporal parameters, mainly by differences between study years and partly between months. When comparing the findings with the yearly and seasonal rainfall patterns in the area, most results are in accordance with the hypothesis of an increased vulnerability of the host toward infection under some sort of environmental challenge.

Vegetation Assessment of Sclater’s Guenon Habitat in Ikot Uso Akpan Forest, ITU, Southeastern Nigeria

This study was aimed assessing the vegetation structure of Sclater's guenon habitat in Ikot Uso Akpan forest, Itu, Southeastern Nigeria. Two sample plots (50m X 50m and 70m X 50m) were used for the vegetation assessment. Descriptive statistics and Computer program (Tree Draw and Stand Visualization System (SVS)) were used for the vegetation analysis. The result obtained showed that a total of 72 tree species belonging to 20 families was enumerated in the study area. Habitat degradation was severe in the study area negatively impacting on the habitat of the endemic primate species in the area. Urgent conservation measures are needed to restore and preserve the forest fragment to ensure the survival of the primate species in the study area.