Endemic New Research Articles

Tersilochinae (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae) from New Zealand. Part 2. Review of genera Kiwi gen. nov. and Zealochus Khalaim.

In the second paper on New Zealand Tersilochinae (Ichneumonidae) we review two endemic New Zealand genera, Kiwi gen. nov. (eight species) and Zealochus Khalaim (three species). Nine species are described as new to science: Kiwi barrattae sp. nov., K. canterberus sp. nov., K. earlyi sp. nov., K. gronous sp. nov., K. oreteus sp. nov., K. ruzelus sp. nov., K. waitakerus sp. nov., Zealochus abominosus sp. nov. and Z. stepheni sp. nov. Zealochus gauldi Khalaim is transferred to Kiwi (comb. nov.). Identification keys to species of Kiwi and Zealochus occurring in New Zealand are provided.

Review of the endemic New Zealand genus Arctesthes Meyrick (Lepidoptera, Geometridae, Larentiinae), with descriptions of two new range-restricted species

The genus Arctesthes Meyrick (Geometridae: Larentiinae: Xanthorhoini), endemic to the South Island of New Zealand, is revised. Four species are recognised, including two new species, as follows: Arctesthescatapyrrha (Butler, 1877), A.siris (Hudson, 1908), A.titanicasp. nov. and A.avatarsp. nov. All except A.catapyrrha are restricted to subalpine and alpine localities. Adults and genitalia are fully described and illustrated for all species; larvae of A.catapyrrha are also briefly described and illustrated. Only Arctesthescatapyrrha is widespread; A.siris is restricted to a few mountain ranges of Central Otago; A.titanica is only known from two wetland localities in the Von Valley of the Otago Lakes district, and A.avatar is only known from a few wetlands in a restricted area of north-west Nelson. The two new species are considered of very high priority for conservation.

The genus Mecodema Blanchard 1853 (Coleoptera: Carabidae: Broscini) from the North Island, New Zealand.

Mecodema (Coleoptera: Carabidae: Broscini) is a hyperdiverse endemic New Zealand genus of ground beetles with only a few geographically widespread species found throughout the two main islands, as well as many offshore islands. Using specimens from a number of private and institutional collections, in addition new specimens were acquired by extensive pitfall trapping, we describe or redescribe all of the known North Island Mecodema species. Additionally, we redescribe three South Island species from the former genus Metaglymma, as morphological evidence shows that these species are nested within Mecodema. Species descriptions are formed by using 128 morphological characters, which include external characters, as well as both male and female internal structures. There are four new combinations: Mecodema antarctica comb. n., M. aberrans comb. n., M. moniliferum comb. n. and M. tibiale comb. n. We synonymise M. occiputale under Mecodema curvidens, and M. sulcatum under Mecodema oblongum, and reinstate M. scitulum Broun (northwest Hunua Range, Auckland). Twenty four new species are described: Mecodema argentum sp. n., M. atuanui sp. n., M. dunnorum sp. n., M. genesispotini sp. n., M. godzilla sp. n., M. jacinda sp. n., M. kipjac sp. n., M. kokoroiho sp. n., M. mohi sp. n., M. ngaiatonga sp. n., M. ngaitahuhu sp. n., M. papake sp. n., M. perexiguus sp. n., M. rusticulus sp. n., M. temata sp. n., M. teparawhau sp. n., M. teroroa sp. n., M. tewhara sp. n., M. tuhoe sp. n., M. undecimus sp. n., M. wharekahika sp. n., M. xylanthrax sp. n., M. yconomus sp. n., M. zonula sp. n. North Island regional species endemism is very high in Northland (15/16 endemic species), with species becoming more widespread in the southern regions, e.g. Wellington only has two endemic species from a total of eight species. This research increases the total number of described Mecodema species to 102, and will allow a modern taxonomic framework for completion of the revision of the South Island species.

Using molecular diet analysis to inform invasive species management: A case study of introduced rats consuming endemic New Zealand frogs.

The decline of amphibians has been of international concern for more than two decades, and the global spread of introduced fauna is a major factor in this decline. Conservation management decisions to implement control of introduced fauna are often based on diet studies. One of the most common metrics to report in diet studies is Frequency of Occurrence (FO), but this can be difficult to interpret, as it does not include a temporal perspective. Here, we examine the potential for FO data derived from molecular diet analysis to inform invasive species management, using invasive ship rats (Rattus rattus) and endemic frogs (Leiopelma spp.) in New Zealand as a case study. Only two endemic frog species persist on the mainland. One of these, Leiopelma archeyi, is Critically Endangered (IUCN 2017) and ranked as the world's most evolutionarily distinct and globally endangered amphibian (EDGE, 2018). Ship rat stomach contents were collected by kill‐trapping and subjected to three methods of diet analysis (one morphological and two DNA‐based). A new primer pair was developed targeting all anuran species that exhibits good coverage, high taxonomic resolution, and reasonable specificity. Incorporating a temporal parameter allowed us to calculate the minimum number of ingestion events per rat per night, providing a more intuitive metric than the more commonly reported FO. We are not aware of other DNA‐based diet studies that have incorporated a temporal parameter into FO data. The usefulness of such a metric will depend on the study system, in particular the feeding ecology of the predator. Ship rats are consuming both species of native frogs present on mainland New Zealand, and this study provides the first detections of remains of these species in mammalian stomach contents.

Know your enemy? Conservation management causes loss of antipredator behaviour to novel predators in New Zealand robins

While studies of animal behaviour have performed a key role in informing conservation management of threatened species, antipredator behaviours are rarely considered in conservation decision making. This study assessed the impact of the translocation of an endemic New Zealand bird to a predator-free ecosanctuary on its antipredator behaviour. We compared antipredator responses of South Island robins, Petroica australis australis, found inside the ecosanctuary with those of robins inhabiting local predator-dense forests, using taxidermy models of a rat, Rattus norvegicus, and stoat, Mustela erminea. Although mammalian predators are relatively novel in New Zealand, some endemic species such as South Island robins recognize them and show antipredator behaviours. We determined the rate of loss of behaviours after release into the ecosanctuary since founders were translocated from predator-dense environments. Robins inhabiting the ecosanctuary exhibited lower intensities of antipredator behaviour towards the model rat than robins in predator-dense areas within at least 3 years after translocation, a shorter period than previously suggested. A recent stoat incursion in the sanctuary provided the opportunity to discern whether robins regained predator-specific antipredator behaviours or displayed heightened generic vigilance to all novel predators. The more intense antipredator responses recorded towards the model stoat than the model rat within the ecosanctuary indicated that the robins had regained their behaviours towards stoats but had not generalized the predatory features of the stoat to the rat. Our study raises concerns regarding the viability of sanctuary populations as sources for future translocations into areas with predators. We recommend antipredator training to improve species survival.

Male members of some endemic New Guinean dasyurid marsupials: they help resolve relationships

Penis morphology of 12 species of endemic New Guinean dasyurid marsupials, including the five currently recognized species of Murexia (M. habbema, M. melanurus, M. naso, M. longicaudata, and M. rothschildi); Phascolosorex dorsalis and Ph. doriae; Neophascogale lorentzii; and the four species of Myoictis (My. melas, My. wallacei, My. wavicus, and My. leucura), are described. Differences in form of the tip of the penis can be used to identify some of the species. The levator muscles are small in Murexia, Phascolosorex, and Neophascogale, and large in Myoictis. All species of Myoictis have accessory corpora cavernosa, which form an appendage to the penis. The anatomy of the penis of Myoictis spp. confirms a close relationship with the Australian dasyurid marsupial Parantechinus apicalis, as shown by a recent molecular study. Accessory corpora cavernosa appear to have arisen independently three times within the Dasyurinae.

The endemic New Guinean genus Murexia (Dasyuromorphia : Dasyuridae). How many species? An analysis based on morphological, distributional and molecular data

Five species are currently recognised in the dasyurid genus Murexia, i.e. longicaudata, naso, habbema, melanurus and rothschildi. Morphological data, including spacing of premolar teeth, the footpads and aspects of external appearance, together with nuclear and mitochondrial DNA sequences from multiple exemplars from across the range of each species, suggest that at least three of these represent species groups rather than individual species. Some of the taxa currently synonymised in the five species may warrant reinstatement, including M. murex, M. aspera, M. maxima in the ‘M. longicaudata’ group, M. tafa in the ‘M. naso’ group and M. wilhelmina in the ‘M. melanurus’ group. Our data also suggest the presence of other, synonymised or undescribed taxa within the ‘longicaudata’, ‘naso’, ‘melanurus’ and ‘habbema’ species groups whose species boundaries require clarification by further collections and study.

Genetic structuring of the coastal herb Arthropodium cirratum (Asparagaceae) is shaped by low gene flow, hybridization and prehistoric translocation.

We examined the genetic structuring of rengarenga (Arthropodium cirratum; Asparagaceae), an endemic New Zealand coastal herb, using nuclear microsatellite markers. This species was brought into cultivation by Māori within the last 700–800 years for its edible roots and was transplanted beyond its natural distribution as part of its cultivation. We found very high levels of genetic structuring in the natural populations (FST = 0.84), indicating low levels of gene flow. Reduced genetic diversity was found in the translocated populations, suggesting a large loss of genetic diversity early in the domestication process. The data indicates that rengarenga was brought into cultivation independently at least three times, with the sources of these introductions located within a narrow area encompassing about 250km of coastline. Hybridization was inferred between A. cirratum and the closely related A. bifurcatum, despite A. birfucatum not occurring in the vicinity.

Phylogeography reveals a North Island range extension for New Zealand's only sexually wing-dimorphic stonefly (Stenoperla helsoni)

ABSTRACTStenoperla helsoni is an endemic New Zealand stonefly characterised by distinctive sexually dimorphic wing loss. Previous distribution records indicated that this species was restricted to the South Island's Southern Alps, although our recent collections of wing-reduced specimens from a site in the Tararua Ranges suggest that this species may extend into the lower North Island. We amplified the mitochondrial COI gene to confirm the identity of North Island specimens, and to assess phylogeographic structuring within the species and genus. North Island specimens were confirmed as S. helsoni, indicating that this species has a much wider geographic range than previously thought. This broad distribution, combined with low levels of intraspecific divergence, suggests that female S. helsoni may be strong fliers, despite males being flightless. Distinct North Island and South Island populations were identified, with a 1.5% divergence between the two populations.

Study of COI sequences from endemic New Zealand aphids highlights high mitochondrial DNA diversity in Rhopalosiphina (Hemiptera: Aphididae)

ABSTRACTFocussed searches were made across New Zealand between 2013 and 2016, for endemic aphids from the Schizaphis (Rhopalosiphina) genus, which is currently represented by two putative, undescribed species from the endemic host plants Aciphylla and Dracophyllum. Cytochrome c oxidase I (COI) gene sequences (48 in total) from the Schizaphis were analysed together with those from a broader collection of New Zealand endemic aphids that has been assembled since the year 2000. The bulk of the Schizaphis belonged to two clusters corresponding to the host plant genera. Two aphids from central North Island Dracophyllum represented a much diverged lineage without clear affiliations to other New Zealand Schizaphis. Inter-population variation in the New Zealand Schizaphis was high compared with that seen in international studies of Aphidinae and among populations of other endemic New Zealand Aphidina. Within Schizaphis from Dracophyllum, geography played an apparent role in genetic structuring, with populations from Taranaki (North Island) and especially Mt Lyford (South Island) being divergent from those on the South Island main divide. Two distinct lineages of Schizaphis, which co-occurred at some sites, were found on Aciphylla. Our sequence comparisons, including GMYC analyses, indicated up to five New Zealand Schizaphis lineages, and two newly discovered endemic Aphis species from the host plants Clematis and Hebe.

Contrasting gene flow at different spatial scales revealed by genotyping-by-sequencing in Isocladus armatus, a massively colour polymorphic New Zealand marine isopod.

Understanding how genetic diversity is maintained within populations is central to evolutionary biology. Research on colour polymorphism (CP), which typically has a genetic basis, can shed light on this issue. However, because gene flow can homogenise genetic variation, understanding population connectivity is critical in examining the maintenance of polymorphisms. In this study we assess the utility of genotyping-by-sequencing to resolve gene flow, and provide a preliminary investigation into the genetic basis of CP in Isocladus armatus, an endemic New Zealand marine isopod. Analysis of the genetic variation in 4,000 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) within and among populations and colour morphs revealed large differences in gene flow across two spatial scales. Marine isopods, which lack a pelagic larval phase, are typically assumed to exhibit greater population structuring than marine invertebrates possessing a biphasic life cycle. However, we found high gene flow rates and no genetic subdivision between two North Island populations situated 8 km apart. This suggests that I. armatus is capable of substantial dispersal along coastlines. In contrast, we identified a strong genetic disjunction between North and South Island populations. This result is similar to those reported in other New Zealand marine species, and is congruent with the presence of a geophysical barrier to dispersal down the east coast of New Zealand. We also found some support for a genetic basis to colouration evidenced by positive FST outlier tests, with two SNPs in particular showing strong association to the expression of a striped morph. Our study provides one of the first population genomic studies of a marine organism in New Zealand, and suggests that genotyping-by-sequencing can be a good alternative to more traditional investigations based on traditional markers such as microsatellites. Our study provides a foundation for further development of a highly tractable system for research on the evolutionary maintenance of CP.

Susceptibility of kale cultivars to the wheat bug, Nysius huttoni (Hemiptera: Lygaeidae) in New Zealand

Seedlings of kale cultivars are highly susceptible to direct feeding by the wheat bug Nysius huttoni (Hemiptera: Lygaeidae), an endemic New Zealand insect pest. Damage from this pest leads to reduced plant establishment so is currently managed by prophylactic use of pesticides. Encouraging farmers to use less susceptible kale cultivars can reduce pesticide costs and improve the environment. A series of choice and no-choice tests was conducted in a controlled-temperature room to evaluate the relative susceptibility of seedlings of the six most widely grown kale cultivars in New Zealand (Gruner, Kestrel, Regal, Colear, Corka, and Sovereign). Bugs settled most readily on Kestrel in both sets of tests, although mean settlement times did not differ significantly among cultivars. However, feeding damage on Kestrel occurred significantly earlier than on Corka or Gruner. These results indicate that Kestrel is the cultivar most susceptible to wheat bugs and that pesticide use could be reduced if less susceptible cultivars were more widely grown in New Zealand. These results also provide important information for developing integrated-management protocols for brassica pests.

Revision of the endemic New Zealand braconid wasp genus Metaspathius: new subfamily placement, and descriptions of four new species including three with fully winged females (Hymenoptera: Braconidae: Mesostoinae)

ABSTRACTThe endemic New Zealand cyclostome braconid wasp genus Metaspathius Brues, which was previously only known from a single specimen, an apterous female, is revised. Four new species, including three with fully winged females, are described and illustrated: Metaspathius chathamicus Ward, sp. nov.; M. hemipterus Belokobylskij, sp. nov.; M. kuscheli Ward & Belokobylskij, sp. nov.; and M. sharkeyi Quicke & Butcher, sp. nov. Metaspathius apterus Brues is illustrated. The first host record for the genus is provided: Metaspathius kuscheli sp. nov. is recorded as a larval parasitoid of the New Zealand endemic weevil Phrynixus astutus Pascoe, 1876 (Curculionidae). DNA sequence data (CO1 and 28S) for two of the species are included in an analysis of a broad range of cyclostome Braconidae with emphasis on basal taxa. The results show that Metaspathius belongs to a clade restricted to New Zealand within the heterogeneous basal subfamily Mesostoinae van Achterberg, 1975. A revised morphological diagnosis of the Mesostoinae is presented in the light of the discovery that Metaspathius is a member. The relationships of the Maxfischeriinae are discussed in the light of molecular findings.http://www.zoobank.org/urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:512AD512-5F2A-44C8-9951-AD739995C10C

The behavioral energetics of New Zealand's bats: Daily torpor and hibernation, a continuum

We examine the impact of behavior on the short-term energy expenditures of the only terrestrial mammals endemic to New Zealand, two bats, the long-tailed (Chalinolobus tuberculatus, family Vespertilionidae), and the lesser short-tailed (Mystacina tuberculata, family Mystacinidae). Vespertilionidae has a world-wide distribution. Mystacinidae is restricted to New Zealand, although related to five neotropical families and one in Madagascar reflecting a shared Gondwanan origin of their Noctilionoidea superfamily. Both species have highly variable body temperatures and rates of metabolism. They feed on flying insects, which requires them to be torpid in shelters during cold, wet periods. In dry weather Mystacina is active in winter at ambient temperatures as low as −1.0 °C, foraging for terrestrial invertebrates in leaf litter, even in the presence of snow, and consuming fruit, nectar, and pollen from endemic plants that bloom in winter. The behavior of Mystacina expands its presence in a cool, wet, temperate forest in a manner unlike any other bat, another example of the distinctive characteristics of the endemic New Zealand fauna. The use of torpor generally depends on a series of factors, including body mass, ambient temperature, latitude, reproductive cycle, sociality, and fat deposits. These factors result in a diversity of responses that range along a continuum from short-term torpor to hibernation.

Lead exposure in an urban, free-ranging parrot: Investigating prevalence, effect and source attribution using stable isotope analysis

Anthropogenic lead use has resulted in widespread environmental lead contamination known to affect wildlife populations worldwide. Ecotoxicological investigations in wild birds have thus far prioritised waterfowl and raptor species and primarily addressed contamination in natural ecosystems. Urban areas are increasingly associated with high levels of heavy metal contamination, however the risk of lead exposure in urban wildlife is less well known. This study investigates lead exposure in an urban population of North Island Kaka (Nestor meridionalis septentrionalis), an endemic New Zealand parrot. The inquisitive nature of these birds, an expanding urban population and increased availability of food in the urban environment are the primary factors implicated in their dispersal into urban areas where there is increased exposure to anthropogenic sources of lead. Blood lead concentrations were assessed in free-ranging birds to quantify the prevalence and magnitude of lead exposure. The impact of lead on physiological and neurological function was assessed using behavioural and clinical examinations. Finally, lead stable isotope analysis was employed to investigate lead in roofing material as a potential source of exposure in the urban environment. Results indicate a significant prevalence of lead exposure in this population (43.2%) with a maximum recorded plasma concentration of 50.7μg/dL. Although no mortality was observed during this study, lead exposure was associated with reduced body condition in kaka. Behavioural changes were present in one individual with the highest recorded blood lead concentration. Lead isotope values of roof-collected rainwater overlapped with kaka blood lead isotope values, suggesting this to be an important source of exposure in this population. The prevalence of lead exposure observed in this study suggests that lead is a toxin of importance to kaka in this urban area. Wildlife intoxications largely result from anthropogenic lead sources and this study identifies a previously undescribed urban source of lead for wildlife.

Host range, host specificity, regional host preferences and genetic variability of Korthalsella Tiegh. (Viscaceae) mistletoes in New Zealand

ABSTRACTThe distribution of parasitic plants is governed by the availability and distribution of suitable host species. Here we report the distributions, host associations and genetic variability of the three endemic New Zealand species of Korthalsella (Viscaceae) mistletoes. These species differ in their primary host and in the breadth of secondary and tertiary hosts. Korthalsella salicornioides is the most host-specific, with 96% of the total records from the primary (Leptospermum scoparium s.l. [Myrtaceae]) and secondary (Kunzea robusta [Myrtaceae]) hosts, but 26 host taxa (six genera in five families) recorded overall. Korthalsella clavata and K. lindsayi are more generalist species, parasitising 44 taxa (19 genera in 14 families) and 42 taxa (13 genera in 11 families), respectively. For K. clavata, Coprosma propinqua (Rubiaceae) and C. dumosa are the primary and secondary hosts, respectively, representing 66% of the total records. For K. lindsayi, Melicope simplex (Rutaceae) is the primary host (26% of records), whereas Coprosma crassifolia, Lophomyrtus obcordata (Myrtaceae), Myrsine australis (Primulaceae) and M. divaricata are secondary hosts. The only overlap among hosts is at the tertiary level, with K. clavata and K. lindsayi sharing Coprosma rigida and C. virescens, and among hosts that are rarely parasitised. Korthalsella salicornioides is the most widely distributed species occurring widely on the North and South Islands, while K. clavata is rare in the North Island and K. lindsayi is rare in the western regions of the South Island. Comparative sequencing of nuclear internal transcribed spacers and plastid trnQ–rps16 for the three mistletoes revealed that within-species genetic structure is geographic rather than host-based. Additionally, some plastid haplotypes and ITS sequence types shared between K. clavata and K. lindsayi may result from local hybridisation and introgression between the two species in a few locations.

Pollinator service affects quantity but not quality of offspring in a widespread New Zealand endemic tree species

Human-mediated introductions of predatory mammals to New Zealand have led to massive bird extinctions and population declines. This reduction in bird abundance could have a variety of negative effects on the plants they pollinate, and this has led to recent management efforts to eliminate predatory mammals in some areas. In this study, we utilized variation in management efforts to determine the effects of pollinator service on progeny quantity and quality of an endemic New Zealand tree species, Fuchsia excorticata. Due to its gynodioecious breeding system (separate hermaphroditic and female plants), we were able to estimate effective pollination by scoring pollen deposition on females as a proxy for pollinator service, which we used to examine the effect of pollinator service on both the quantity of fruits produced and the quality of fruits, as measured by the selfing rate of hermaphrodites. We found that increased pollinator service increased progeny quantity, with a stronger effect in females, but had no effect on the quality via selfing rates. The combined effects of pollen limitation and loss of seeds due to inbreeding depression led to hermaphrodites having an estimated 24–80% reduction in the number of offspring reaching reproductive age, even in the highly managed populations. Our results suggest management efforts can have substantial impacts on progeny quantity, but progeny quality is likely influenced by more difficult to manage population or species-specific traits such as tree size, plant sex ratio, and pollinator behavior.

Lizards in the suburbs: a single-garden study of a small endemic New Zealand skink (Oligosoma aeneum)

ABSTRACTDetailed investigations of ecology and life history of lizards in New Zealand/Aotearoa are needed to inform their conservation and management. An early demographic study of copper skinks (Oligosoma aeneum) in a suburban garden was undertaken in Lower Hutt using mark–recapture methods, sampling weekly from March 1971 to December 1973. Oligosoma aeneum were seen on 1372 occasions, with 972 captures of 169 individuals. The maximum snout–vent length was 66 mm, 33% of skinks had complete tails, and colour differences suggested sexual signalling and warrant further study. Most captures occurred over November–March, with fewest over June–August. The estimated spring/summer population size in the garden (± SEM) was 83.6 (± 9.4) skinks, and the annual survival rate (± SEM) was 38.0% (± 16.0%). This is one of the few New Zealand lizard studies that have extended through all months of the year and it adds to limited information on lizard populations in suburban areas.

Genetic Variation and Hybridisation among Eight Species of kōwhai (Sophora: Fabaceae) from New Zealand Revealed by Microsatellite Markers.

We analysed nine microsatellite markers for 626 individuals representing the geographic range of eight closely related endemic New Zealand species of Sophora. Structure analysis identified the optimal K value as seven, with samples identified as Sophora chathamica, Sophora fulvida, Sophora longicarinata, and Sophora prostrata retrieved as well-defined groups. The remaining samples formed less resolved groups referable to Sophora tetraptera and Sophora godleyi, with Sophora microphylla and Sophora molloyi forming the seventh group. Our data suggest that considerable admixture occurs and this is most likely the result of hybridisation or introgression. S. fulvida shows admixture with the sympatric S. chathamica, and the widespread S. microphylla exhibits admixture with the sympatric S. godleyi, S. molloyi, and S. tetraptera.

Annual survival estimates and risk of fluoroacetate (1080) secondary poisoning for New Zealand falcons (Falco novaeseelandiae) in a managed exotic forest

Context The risk of secondary poisoning to native fauna during pest control operations is an issue of global concern. In New Zealand, non-target impacts during sodium fluoroacetate (1080) operations are particularly contentious. 1080 is used extensively for pest control for conservation, bovine tuberculosis control, and in plantation forestry for seedling protection from herbivores. The endemic New Zealand falcon (Falco novaeseelandiae) breeds in Kaingaroa forest, an intensively managed pine plantation where regular 1080 poison operations are conducted; however, causes of mortality and risks of secondary poisoning by 1080 are not well documented. Aims We aimed to investigate mortality and survival of adult falcons with an emphasis on assessing the possible role of 1080 poisoning in annual mortality. Methods Using radio-telemetry and visual observations, we monitored 37 marked adult falcons before and after 1080 operations in 2013–14 (16 through carrot-bait and 21 through cereal-bait operations) and assessed mortality causes through post-mortem examinations. Using Program MARK, the annual survival rates for adults and independent juveniles were estimated from long-term banding data (2003–2014). Key results Survival of falcons was high through both cereal-bait (21/21) and carrot-bait (15/16) 1080 operations (overall 95% CI for survival = 84–100%). The exception was a radio-tagged male that died of unknown causes within a fortnight of an operation and tested negative for 1080 residues. Three falcons were depredated by introduced mammals. One falcon was found dead in an emaciated condition but evidently died from head injury through Australasian magpie (Cracticus tibicen) attack. The annual survival rate of falcons estimated from long-term banding was 80 ± 6.0% (mean ± s.e.) for adults and 29 ± 0.1% for juveniles. Conclusions No adult falcon death was attributable to 1080 poisoning in this study. Identifiable mortalities were attributable to depredation by introduced mammals and an injury from an Australasian magpie. The annual survival rate of Kaingaroa falcons was comparable to those of other raptor species worldwide. Implications The risk to adult falcons from 1080 secondary poisoning is likely low. Whether this is also true for juveniles requires further study.