Endemic Insect Research Articles

The use of indigenous ecological resources for pest control in Africa

Reducing the losses from crop pests will help to increase food availability and boost economic growth in sub- Saharan Africa (SSA). However, the existing crop protection paradigm that relies on synthetic agrochemical pesticides has had only a marginal impact on the productivity of many poor smallholder farmers who constitute a major segment of agri- culture in SSA. This is primarily because many of them are not able to afford or access these imported chemicals. A solution to this crop protection problem may be to harness biologicalresourcesthatarelocallyavailable,suchasendemic insect natural enemies and indigenous pesticidal plant mate- rials. Two specific examples of this already under develop- ment in Africa are the use of the pesticidal plant, Tephrosia vogelii, and the harvesting of the endemic insect baculovirus, Spodoptera exempta nucleopolyhedrovirus (SpexNPV). Both of these can be produced locally and have shown promise in trials as inexpensive and effective tools for pest control in Africa and their use is currently being scaled up and evaluated by African networks of researchers. A focus on these systems illustrates the potential for using locally-available natural re- sources for improved crop protection in Africa. The consider- ation of these pesticidal plants and insect natural enemies in the wider context of natural capital that provide valuable ecosystem services (including pest control), will facilitate greater recognition of their true economic and societal worth. While both of these model systems show promise, there are also very significant challenges to be overcome in developing production, supply and marketing systems that are economi- cally viableand sustainable.Theregulatoryenvironment must also evolve to accommodate and facilitate the registration of new products and the establishment of appropriate supply chains that share the benefits of these resources equitably with the local communities from which they are harvested.

Fecundity in Captivity of the Green Anoles,Anolis carolinensis, Established on the Ogasawara Islands

The iguanid lizard, green anole Anolis carolinensis, has currently established breeding colonies on several tropical and subtropical Pacific islands. In the Ogasawara Islands, predation by the green anole has collapsed the endemic insect community. Now that the Ogasawara Islands have been inscribed on the World Heritage List as a natural heritage by UNESCO, it is necessary to study the current status and ecological aspects of the green anole there to improve the effectiveness of control efforts. When planning population management for an alien species, information regarding its fecundity (number of eggs laid per female per year) is essential. This species lays only one egg at a time, but lays multiple times during an extensive reproductive season each year. It is therefore difficult to estimate fecundity by ordinary methods, such as gonadal examination by necropsy. In the present study, we maintained 10 female anoles from Chichijima Island in indoor captivity under conditions similar to those of the Ogasawara Islands to record their egg-laying conditions. Egg-laying occurred from April to October with a peak in August, during which each female laid 0.95 eggs/week on an average. The average number of eggs laid by a female in a year was 13.7. Sites selected for laying were spaces between the leaves of ferns and in hollows on the ground. We consider that for efficient control of this species, we should intensively hunt females in April, before their egg-laying frequency begins to increase.

Insect diversity of Bukit Hampuan Forest Reserve, Sabah, Malaysia

An insect diversity survey was carried out at Bukit Hampuan Forest Reserve, adjacent to Kinabalu Park in Sabah, Malaysia. The nocturnal insect diversity was very high, with a mean of 113 species recorded from one square metre of light-trapping cloth. Diurnal insects were sampled using sweep nets and fine forceps. A total of 19 Bornean endemic insect species were recorded, comprising 15 moth and four beetle species. A few of the endemic moths are confined to Sabah, namely Buzara saikehi, Cyana saulia and Lyclene mesilaulinea. Forty-two butterfly species were recorded. Endemic insect species sampled from this survey indicate the significance of protecting and conserving this forest reserve. Such findings provide important data to enhance the need and effort in biodiversity conservation. The recent gazettement of Bukit Hampuan Forest Reserve is appropriate, and it is also recommended that Bukit Hampuan Forest Reserve be connected to the adjacent Kinabalu Park, i.e. to gazette the connecting state land area into a forest reserve. Forest fires, illegal hunting for wild animals and orchids, and agricultural activities are among the threats to Bukit Hampuan Forest Reserve which directly affect its insect diversity. To mitigate these threats, it is important to adopt a multi-disciplinary and participatory approach in a smart partnership involving relevant stakeholders and the local communities in monitoring, enforcement and promoting environmental awareness.

Diversification patterns and processes of wingless endemic insects in the Mediterranean Basin: historical biogeography of the genusBlaps(Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae)

Aim The Mediterranean Basin (MB) is a species-rich biogeographical region with many endemic taxa. We analysed the historical patterns of temporal and geographical diversification of Mediterranean Blaps (Tenebrionidae), a diverse group of flightless beetles, estimated their date of origin and colonization of the MB, and tracked temporal changes in diversification rates. Location Mediterranean Basin. Methods We reconstructed the phylogenetic relationships of Mediterranean Blaps using four mitochondrial genes and 47 morphological characters. Divergence-time estimates were investigated with a Bayesian relaxed clock approach that was calibrated with both fossil and geological constraints. Biogeographical analyses were performed using the dispersal–extinction–cladogenesis likelihood model associated with a stratified palaeogeographical scenario. Diversification rate analyses allowed the investigation of diversity dynamics through time as well as rate shifts during major Cenozoic climate events. Results The Bayesian relaxed clock analysis suggests that Blaps first appeared in the MB about 28 Ma. The most likely scenario is that Mediterranean Blaps originated in the Arabian and north-east African regions and then dispersed progressively westwards and northwards, using temporary land bridges to colonize the northern shores of the MB. Island endemics are more likely to be the products of recent dispersals than of old vicariance events. Birth–death analyses suggest that diversification rates in the Miocene and Pliocene are consistent with a ‘museum model’, in which most of the extant diversity is best explained by a steady accumulation of lineages under constant diversification rates. Although major Cenozoic climatic events do not seem to have influenced the diversification of Mediterranean Blaps, a decrease in diversification rates was detected during the Pleistocene. Main conclusions Our results suggest that Mediterranean Blaps lineages diversified between the Oligocene and the Pliocene, with current distribution patterns mostly accounted for by early vicariance and late dispersal events. Diversification rates were relatively constant through time, but decreased during Pleistocene glaciation cycles. This scenario may be applicable to other Mediterranean terrestrial animal taxa.

Yield performance and pest resistance among peanut genotypes when grown without fungicides or insecticides

Yield trials without fungicides or insecticides were conducted four consecutive years (2007–10) at the University of Georgia, Coastal Plain Experiment Station, Tifton Campus to evaluate for peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) pest resistance. The most endemic diseases in the southeast U.S. are tomato spotted wilt (TSW) caused by Tomato spotted wilt virus, white mold (WM) caused by Sclerotium rolfsii Sacc, and both early and late leaf spot caused by Cercospora arachidicola Hori and Cercosporidium personatum (Berk & Curt.) Deighton, respectively. The most endemic insects are tobacco thrips (Frankliniella fusca Hinds) and potato leafhopper (Empoasca fabae Harris). Results from these replicated field tests showed significant differences (P ≤ 0.05) among advanced Georgia breeding lines and cultivars. Three Georgia cultivars ‘Georgia-01R’, ‘Georgia-05E’, and ‘Georgia-10T’ consistently produced among the best yields with high levels of resistance to TSW, white mold, leafhoppers, and leaf spot each year. Georgia-01R is a multiple-pest-resistant, runner-type cultivar with late maturity; whereas, Georgia-05E is a multiple-pest-resistant, virginia-type cultivar with medium-late maturity. Georgia-10T is a new runner-type cultivar with high level of TSWV and white mold resistance and late-maturity, similar to Georgia-01R, one of its parents. However, Georgia-10T does not appear to have the high level of leaf spot and leafhopper resistance as Georgia-01R, but it still had high yields in the absence of fungicides or insecticides.

Vicariant speciation due to 1.55 Ma isolation of theRyukyu islands,Japan, based on geological andGenBank data

AbstractTheRyukyu island arc, originally a continental margin arc, separated from theChinese continent by the rifting of theOkinawa trough, a process which began at 1.55 million years ago (Ma) and continues to the present. In addition, theRyukyu arc was simultaneously divided into the northernAmami–Okinawa and southernYaeyama islands by theKerama rift valley, and consequently formed two isolated island units. TheKuroshio warm current began to flow into theOkinawa trough from theYonaguniStrait, and flow out through theTsushima andTokara straits also at 1.55 Ma, and these seaways effectively acted as barriers between theRyukyu islands andTaiwan,China andJapan. Through this geological process, vicariant speciation generatedRyukyu endemic animal species. We support this hypothesis by drawing linearized maximum likelihood (ML) phylogenetic trees of the species in four endemic insect groups (peacock butterfly,Chinese windmill butterfly, golden‐ringed dragonfly, window firefly) usingGenBank sequence data. We determined the precise branching ages for these phylogenetic trees, and show simultaneous speciation at 1.55 Ma forAmami–Okinawa andYaeyama units. TheTaiwan andTsushima straits, barriers betweenTaiwan andChina, andJapan andKorea, respectively, did not form sufficient barriers to migration during glacial low stands, and species were intermingled. A marine embayment may have posed as a migration barrier between northern and southernChina in theQuaternary or a little earlier. From our study we also estimate the precise molecular evolution rate and justify the molecular clock.

The spatial genetic differentiation of the legume pod borer,Maruca vitrataF. (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) populations in West Africa

The legume pod borer, Maruca vitrata, is an endemic insect pest that causes significant yield loss to the cowpea crop in West Africa. The application of population genetic tools is important in the management of insect pests but such data on M. vitrata is lacking. We applied a set of six microsatellite markers to assess the population structure of M. vitrata collected at five sites from Burkina Faso, Niger and Nigeria. Observed polymorphisms ranged from one (marker 3393) to eight (marker 32008) alleles per locus. Observed and expected heterozygosities ranged from 0.0 to 0.8 and 0.0 to 0.6, respectively. Three of the loci in samples from Nigeria and Burkina Faso deviated significantly from Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium (HWE), whereas no loci deviated significantly in samples from Niger. Analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) indicated that 67.3% level of the genetic variation was within individuals compared to 17.3% among populations. A global estimate of F ST=0.1 (ENA corrected F ST=0.1) was significant (P⩽0.05) and corroborated by pairwise F ST values that were significant among all possible comparisons. A significant correlation was predicted between genetic divergence and geographic distance between subpopulations (R2=0.6, P=0.04), and cluster analysis by the program STRUCTURE predicted that co-ancestry of genotypes were indicative of three distinct populations. The spatial genetic variance among M. vitrata in West Africa may be due to limited gene flow, south-north seasonal movement pattern or other reproductive barriers. This information is important for the cultural, chemical and biological control strategies for managing M. vitrata.

Lesões oculares por Processionária (Thaumetopoea pityocampa Schiff): relatos de casos

The Processionary (Thaumetopoea pityocampa Schiff), is an endemic insect of pine and cedar trees, existing both in rural and urban areas. Ocular toxicity, once rare due to the efficacy of eradication methods, is caused by the insects' hair and is expected to be more frequent with its recrudescence. We report two clinical cases and review the epidemiology of Processionary and its eye injuries. Case 1: a 64 year-old patient complained of red eye and foreign body sensation after being gardening. She had a BCVA of 0.5 and biomicroscopy revealed an epithelial erosion, flare (++), Tyndall (+++) and the presence of a setae in the deep corneal stroma. Case 2: a 28 year-old patient complained of severe pain in the right eye and hyperemia after having had contact with a caterpillar. He presented with a BCVA of 0.6, Tyndall (+++) and multiple filaments (over 20) at different depths in the cornea. Case 3: a 23 year-old patient refers to the ER with foreign body sensation and constant lacrimation in the right eye after having been completing military exercises in an urban park. He presented a BCVA of 0.3, multiple epithelial erosions in the nasal half of the cornea that cove-red multiple orange strands and an anterior chamber reaction (Tyndall +). Therapy was initiated with topical steroids and symptomatic surveillance. Ocular toxicity due to Processionary hairs, whose movement occurs preferentially towards the posterior pole, includes early signs (conjunctivitis, keratitis, and uveitis) and late signs (cataract, pars planitis, vitritis, and retinitis). The 3 cases presented had early lesions, having fully recovered from the inflammatory condition after 6 months. However, inactive setae were still visible in the corneal stroma. Intraocular migration, which can occur years after the initial episode, is possible and might be severe, thus requiring a life-long surveillance. Processionary recrudescence has been observed, both in rural and urban areas. It is therefore imperative to be familiar with eye injuries caused by the insect and its treatment.

Isotopic fractionation in a large herbivorous insect, the Auckland tree weta

Determining diet and trophic position of species with stable isotopes requires appropriate trophic enrichment estimates between an animal and its potential foods. These estimates are particularly important for cryptic foragers where there is little comparative dietary information. Nonetheless, many trophic enrichment estimates are based on related taxa, without confirmation of accuracy using laboratory trials. We used stable isotope analysis to investigate diet and to resolve trophic relationships in a large endemic insect, the Auckland tree weta (Hemideina thoracica White). Comparisons of isotopes in plant foods fed to captive wetas with isotope ratios in their frass provided variable results, so frass isotope values had limited usefulness as a proxy indicator of trophic level. Isotopic values varied between different tissues, with trophic depletion of 15N highest in body fat and testes. Tissue fractionation was consistent in captive and wild caught wetas, and isotopic values were not significantly different between the two groups, suggesting that this weta species is primarily herbivorous. Whole-body values in captive wetas demonstrated trophic depletion (Δδ) for δ15N of about −0.77‰ and trophic enrichment of 4.28‰ for δ13C. These values differ from commonly estimated trophic enrichments for both insects and herbivores and indicate the importance of laboratory trials to determine trophic enrichment. Isotopic values for femur muscles from a number of local wild weta populations did not vary consistently with body weight or size, suggesting that juveniles eat the same foods as adults. Considerable variation among individuals within and between populations suggests that isotopic values are strongly influenced by food availability and individual foraging traits.

Haplotype diversity of the nematode Pristionchus pacificus on Réunion in the Indian Ocean suggests multiple independent invasions

Pristionchus pacificus has been established as a nematode model system in evolutionary developmental biology and evolutionary ecology. Field studies in North and South America, Asia, Africa and Europe indicated that nematodes of the genus Pristionchus live in association with scarab beetles. Here, we describe the first account of soil- and beetle-associated nematodes on an island setting by investigating the island of Reunion in the Indian Ocean. Reunion has high numbers of endemic insects and is one among several attractive islands for biodiversity studies. Being of volcanic origin, Reunion is 2–3 million years old, making it the youngest of the Mascareigne islands. We show that beetle- and soil-derived nematodes on Reunion are nearly exclusively hermaphroditic, suggesting that selfing is favoured over gonochorism (outcrossing) during island colonization. Among members of four nematode genera observed on Reunion, Pristionchus pacificus was the most prevalent species. A total of 76 isolates, in association with five different scarab beetles, has been obtained for this cosmopolitan nematode. A detailed mitochondrial haplotype analysis indicates that the Reunion isolates of P. pacificus cover all four worldwide clades of the species. This extraordinary haplotype diversity suggests multiple independent invasions, most likely in association with different scarab beetles. Together, we establish Reunion as a case study for nematode island biogeography, in which the analysis of nematode population genetics and population dynamics can provide insight into evolutionary and ecological processes. © 2010 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2010, 100, 170–179.

Small off-shore islands can serve as important refuges for endemic beetle conservation

Although large islands generally support a richer insect fauna than small islands, many large islands, which are more often inhabited, have lost numerous species because of human activities and introduced organisms. To clarify the consequences of endemic insect conservation on small islands near inhabited islands, we compared the species richness, abundance, and composition of two beetle groups (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae and Mordellidae) captured using Malaise traps among three islands (Chichijima, 24.0 km2; Anijima, 7.85 km2; Nishijima, 0.49 km2) in the oceanic Ogasawara (Bonin) Island group in the northwestern Pacific during June–July 2006 and 2007. Chichijima, the largest island, is inhabited, while Anijima and Nishijima are not. The numbers of cerambycid and mordellid species previously recorded were positively correlated with island area. However, the total numbers of cerambycid and mordellid species we captured in Malaise traps were not correlated with island area because we were unable to collect many species previously documented on Chichijima. The numbers of cerambycid and mordellid species per trap did not differ significantly among islands and years, although the deviance was well explained by the island variable. We captured greater numbers of cerambycid and mordellid individuals on Chichijima than on Anijima and Nishijima, and the numbers of cerambycid and mordellid individuals per trap significantly differed among islands and between years. Redundancy analysis (RDA) showed that the species composition of cerambycids and mordellids differed among the three islands. Whereas endangered species were rarely captured on Chichijima, alien or non-endemic species were frequently collected. Cerambycid and mordellid beetles on Chichijima may have been deleteriously affected by recent forest disturbance and introduced organisms. Therefore, conserving insect fauna on uninhabited island “refugia” is important for preserving the insect diversity of the Ogasawara Islands.

Mast seeding, predator satiation, and temperature cues in Chionochloa (Poaceae)

AbstractSnow tussocks (Chionochloa spp.) in New Zealand exhibit extreme mast seeding which is synchronised within and among populations and species over large spatial scales. This masting behaviour satiates three endemic insect seed predators, and the weather cue that triggers heavy flowering has been reported as a very warm austral summer in the year before flowering. Here we elucidate the details of flowering, predator satiation, and temperature cues for Chionochloa. A 22‐year observational data set for Chionochloa pallens from 1,070 m elevation on Mt Hutt, Canterbury, indicates that flowering was highly variable (CV = 1.79) which was effective in predator satiation, and the key cue for heavy flowering was warm temperatures between 1 January and 7 February the year before flowering. Both the number of inflorescences per tussock (the most variable component of reproductive output) and the number of florets per inflorescence were increased. Surprisingly, there were also same‐season effects of temperatures between October and December on the number of inflorescences per tussock produced in late December through February. Experimental warming of tussocks using open‐topped clear plastic enclosure tubes verified the same‐season observations by significantly increasing flowering in the current season, but much less often increased flowering in the subsequent season. A comparison of masting patterns 1990–2008 with altitude in two tussock species, C. pallens and C. macra, indicates that at higher altitudes (ca. 1,580 m vs. 1,070 m) the temperature thresholds for a given flowering effort were lowered. The lowering of thresholds (2.1°C in C. pallens and 1.5°C in C. macra) was similar to the reduction in mean growing‐season air temperatures (2.0°C) found between the sites. Thus, despite different local temperatures at high and low altitude sites, the different populations flowered with a similar intensity each year. The primary benefit of mast seeding in Chionochloa appears to be predator satiation, and the key predator (the cecidomyiid Eucalyptodiplosis chionochloae) has extended diapause. If diapause can be influenced by climate cues, the exact nature of the climate cues will be important to the evolutionary interaction between the plant and its seed predators.

Differences in endemic insect assemblages among vegetation types on a small island of the oceanic Ogasawara Islands

AbstractNatural vegetation is often replaced by invasive alien plants on isolated oceanic islands. To determine how invasive alien plants affect insect diversity, we compared flying insects captured using Malaise traps among different vegetation types on a small island (Nishijima; 0.49 km2) in the oceanic Ogasawara (Bonin) Islands in the north‐western Pacific. The numbers of individuals and species, and the species composition of pollinators (bees), predators (wasps) and wood borers (cerambycid, mordellid and elaterid beetles) were compared among three vegetation types: Casuarina equisetifolia (an invasive alien tree) forest, natural forest and natural grassland (forest edge), during two seasons (June and October–November 2005). In traps, 80.0, 66.7, 87.5, 85.7 and 100.0% of bee, wasp, cerambycid, mordellid and elaterid beetle species, respectively, were endemic to the Ogasawara Islands. Grassland had the highest wasp and bee species richness, whereas natural forest had the highest species richness of wood‐boring beetles. The C. equisetifolia forest had the poorest species richness for most insect groups (except mordellid beetles). More individuals of most insect groups (except bees) were captured in June than in October–November. More individual bees and wasps were captured in grassland than in forests, whereas more individual mordellid and elaterid beetles were captured in forests than in grassland. The number of cerambycid individuals did not differ among vegetation types. Redundancy analysis suggested that most insect species preferred natural forest or grassland to alien forest. Therefore, further invasion of natural grassland and forest by the alien tree C. equisetifolia may negatively affect the endemic insect fauna of Nishijima.

Conserving narrow range endemic insects in the face of climate change: options for some Australian butterflies

Many insects in the southern hemisphere are regarded as ‘point endemics’ or ‘narrow range endemics’, known from single sites or small, strictly circumscribed areas. Failure to find them elsewhere during extensive targeted searches suggests strongly that such distributions are initially ‘real’ (reflecting long isolation and speciation) rather than the remnant consequences of extensive anthropogenic changes. The latter may further fragment the already small range. Not unexpectedly, such species commonly arouse conservation attention. However, recovery plans or less focused conservation management agendas commonly can pay little constructive heed to ramifications of future climate changes, not least because those ramifications can only be inferred within rather broad limits and require a certain amount of ‘crystal ball-gazing’. In addition, the factors causing the current narrow distributions of the insects can usually only be suggested, most commonly in terms of supply of critical resources as a key component of suitable habitat. In practice, conservation of narrow range species has concentrated almost wholly on urgent short-term issues of site and resource security with—should it be considered at all—little heed to the changing suitability of the site(s) as climates change. This approach alone may prove inadequate and is based on the largely unproven presumption that the species may still be able to persist on those sites. Alternatives may be possible for some taxa, in helping to cater for likely future range changes by (1) acknowledging and plotting environmental gradients and preparing new sites to support those species within the species’ dispersal capability, and (2) securing sites within more distant but potentially suitable areas to receive translocations in the future. Any change in distribution of the species necessitates change of both scope and detail of management, as the spatial and temporal distributions of its resources change. There is at least suggestion that the entire present range of some such taxa may be rendered unsuitable, predominantly by changes in temperature and precipitation patterns, and possibly within only a few decades. Additionally, increasing CO2 levels may influence plant metabolism and affect food availability. Whereas increasing connectivity between occupied sites is a common recommendation in insect species management, it is not as frequently acknowledged that this may not always serve for the longer term. It is, nevertheless, a valid ‘insurance tactic’ to guard against increased risk of destructive fires, already recognized as a threat to many such taxa in Australia and likely to increase in the future with projected global warming. As Dennis (1993) discussed, three aspects of climate change relate strongly to butterfly biology: the absolute rise in regional temperatures and consequent changes in other attributes, particularly precipitation; the rate at which such changes occur; and the frequency and magnitude of ‘extreme weather events’. Consequences to species are extinction, adaptation in situ, or movement elsewhere, with the last of these gaining particular attention for conservation. However, the options available to plan for the future of narrow range endemic insects in the face of range alterations imposed by climate change will vary with the kind of distribution, as well as the level of ecological specialization, with extreme specialization curtailing the alternative ‘outlets of escape’ (Dennis 1993) within an occupied site. Several different scenarios or distribution patterns are evident in narrowly distributed Australian butterflies. They manifest one of about five basic patterns, T. R. New (&) Department of Zoology, La Trobe University, Bundoora, VIC 3086, Australia e-mail: T.New@latrobe.edu.au

Mitochondrial phylogeny of the endemic Hawaiian craneflies (Diptera, Limoniidae, Dicranomyia): Implications for biogeography and species formation

Situated in the middle of the Pacific Ocean, over 3000 km from the nearest continental land mass, the Hawaiian Archipelago is the most remote island group on earth. The Hawaiian Islands are often referred to as a ‘‘conveyor belt” archipelago (Carson and Clague, 1995); as the Pacific plate moves to the northwest over a stationary hotspot, islands are formed, carried with the plate, and gradually subside at a more-or-less constant rate (Price and Clague, 2002; Ziegler, 2002). This hotspot has been active for over 40 million years (Carson and Clague, 1995) and has resulted in a chain of successively older islands, seamounts, and atolls stretching northwest across the Pacific. Currently, there are eight ‘‘high islands” in the southeast of the chain that, at over 1000 m in elevation, are able to support a diverse flora and fauna. The youngest island, dated at less than 600,000 years old, is the Big Island of Hawai‘i. Kaua‘i, at about 5 million years old, is the oldest high island (Price and Clague, 2002). Extreme isolation, coupled with the unique geology and environmental conditions of the islands, has made Hawai‘i a ‘‘natural laboratory” where the effects of evolution are readily observable (Kaneshiro, 1995). Over 850 endemic flowering plant (Wagner et al., 1990) and 4000 endemic insect species (Liebherr, 2001) are each thought to have been derived from about 200 colonization events. Colonist species can rapidly fill open ecological niches and diversify in situ, resulting in an amazing array of endemic fauna and flora. Newly emerging islands are then colonized from

Endemic insects from the Yungas of Argentina

Until now, biogeographic unit of the Yungas was almost exclusively characterized by its floristic taxa. Presence of other taxonomical groups, in this case arthropods, were poorly recorded besides implicit mention of arthropods to characterizeYungas as a natural region. We present herein a species checklist of the holometabolous insects considered as endemics of the Yungas in Argentina. This checklist is a result of a rigorous endemicity analysis (Navarro et al, en prep.) Comments about altitudinal gradients of distribution for these endemic species are made. Results reveal a total of 23 endemic insects species of Yungas, representing 13 families of Lepidoptera, Diptera and Hymenoptera。

The Conservation-Refugium Value of Small and Disturbed Brazilian Atlantic Forest Fragments for the Endemic Ovoviviparous Cockroach Monastria biguttata (Insecta: Dictyoptera, Blaberidae, Blaberinae)

The Brazilian Atlantic forest is a biodiversity hotspot and harbors many endemic species showing peculiar and unique traits. However, it has been reduced to less than 8% of its original surface and is distributed in scattered fragments, the great majority of which are smaller than 20 hectares and very disturbed, making it worth asking about their value for conservation. In this paper we assess the refugium value of small fragments to the conservation of one of the endemics of the Atlantic forest, the ovoviviparous cockroach Monastria biguttata. Our results showed that this species was ubiquitous in large and small forest fragments, but never present in plantations or pastures. The population age structure and sex ratio were balanced in every fragment, and total population size in the smallest fragments was at least several hundreds of individuals. Colony size, sex ratio, age structure, and density per piece of dead tree trunk indicated that populations from small fragments were not unbalanced or at risk of extinction. According to the analysis of resource availability, small fragments can provide suitable habitat for this species. In this situation, even very small forest fragments have a high refugium value for some endemic insect species. Considering their number in the landscape, these fragments should be considered with more attention in strategies of biodiversity conservation.

Repetitive DNA in tropical tasar silkworm Antheraea mylitta

Antheraea mylitta is an endemic insect species producing the world famous tasar silk. Its populations occupying different ecological and geographical regions show certain degree of phenotypic variability for which they are known as ‘eco-races’. In order to understand the genetic variability and phylogenetic relationship among the different eco-races we characterized a repetitive TaqI genomic DNA fragment as a genetic marker. The sequence analysis and Southern hybridization show the repetitive nature of TaqI DNA fragment, designated as A. mylitta TaqI family repeat, AmTFR. The PCR amplification of AmTFR reveals its presence in all the tested eco-races of tasar silkworm and some other silk producing insects. The AmTFR is evenly distributed in all 31 meiotic metaphase I chromosomes as observed by fluorescent in situ hybridization. The AmTFR based phylogenetic analysis of the eco-races is not congruent with the morphological variations and their geographical distribution.

The influence of stream flow reduction on the energetics of endemic Hawaiian torrenticolous aquatic insects, Telmatogeton Schiner and Procanace Hendel

Tropical island stream ecosystems continue to be threatened by increasing anthropogenic demands for freshwater, with many streams dammed or diverted. Stream flow amendments can have substantial effects on aquatic insect populations of tropical archipelagoes. In Hawaiian streams, an endemic Diptera community of the following genera dominates cascades and other torrential habitats: Telmatogeton Schiner (Chironomidae), Procanace Hendel (Canacidae), Scatella Robineau-Desvoidy (Ephydridae). Larval densities, standing stock biomass (SSB, as ash-free dry mass [AFDM]), and monthly secondary production of Telmatogeton and Procanace were measured during two summers of significantly different stream discharge in Iao Valley, Maui, Hawaii. Very few Scatella larvae were collected ( 95% in both years due to significantly larger body size and high density. The SSB of Telmatogeton significantly decreased from 3138 to 1622 mg AFDM m−2 from 1994 to 1995 but increased for Procanace (37.6–60.9 mg AFDM m−2, respectively). Total torrential community secondary production was 31% lower in 1994 (12,833 mg AFDM m−2 mo−1) compared to 1995 (8855 mg AFDM m−2 mo−1), reflecting the Telmatogeton proportion of total community production (99%); however, Procanace production increased by 40%. Monthly P/B ratios indicated that biomass turnover was generally high and increased for Telmatogeton from 1994 (3.8) to 1995 (5.1), whereas it remained lower and did not change between years for Procanace (1.7). A natural drought of the Iao Stream valley was associated with structural and functional changes in two endemic aquatic insects; these results are a conservative indication of permanent stream flow reductions from anthropogenic withdrawal (e.g., dams and diversions).

Deforestation alters the resource base and biomass of endemic stream insects in eastern Madagascar

Summary1. Rainforest streams in eastern Madagascar have species‐rich and diverse endemic insect communities, while streams in deforested areas have relatively depauperate assemblages dominated by collector‐gatherer taxa. We sampled a suite of benthic insects and their food resources in three primary rainforest streams within Ranomafana National Park in eastern Madagascar and three agriculture streams in the park's deforested peripheral zone. We analysed gut contents and combined biomass and stable isotope data to examine stream community responses to deforestation in the region, which is a threatened and globally important hotspot for freshwater biodiversity.2. Gut analyses showed that most taxa depended largely on amorphous detritus, obtained either from biofilms (collector‐gatherers) or from seston (microfilterers). Despite different resource availability in forest versus agriculture streams, diets of each taxon did not differ between stream types, suggesting inflexible feeding modes. Carbon sources for forest stream insects were difficult to discern using δ13C. However, in agriculture streams dependence on terrestrial carbon sources was low relative to algal sources. Most insect taxa with δ13C similar to terrestrial carbon sources (e.g. the stonefly Madenemura, the caddisfly Chimarra sp. and Simulium blackflies) were absent or present at lower biomass in agriculture streams relative to forest streams. Conversely, collector‐gatherers (Afroptilum mayflies) relied on algal carbon sources and had much higher biomass in agriculture streams.3. Our analyses indicate that a few collector‐gatherer species (mostly Ephemeroptera) can take advantage of increased primary production in biofilms and consequently dominate biomass in streams affected by deforestation. In contrast, many forest stream insects (especially those in the orders Plecoptera, Trichoptera and Diptera) depend on terrestrial carbon sources (i.e. seston and leaf litter), are unable to track resource availability and consequently decline in streams draining deforested landscapes. These forest‐specialists are often micro‐endemic and particularly vulnerable to deforestation.4. The use of consumer biomass data in stable isotope research can help detect population‐level responses to shifts in basal resources caused by anthropogenic change. We also suggest that restoration of vegetated riparian zones in eastern Madagascar and elsewhere could mitigate the deleterious effects of deforestation on sensitive, endemic stream taxa that are dependent on terrestrial carbon sources.