Endangered Species Act Research Articles

Prioritization of Species Status Assessments for Decision Support

Species status assessments are used to inform U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) decision making for Endangered Species Act (ESA) classification decisions, recovery planning, and more. The large number of species that require assessment and uncertainty in the data available impede the process of assigning and completing the assessments, which makes creating a multiyear work plan extremely difficult. An optimized triaging system that maximizes the use of the best available information while managing the complex ESA workload and meeting deadlines is necessary. We used a structured decision-making framework to approach the problem with the goal of creating a prioritization tool that would be effective at scheduling assessments, given the best information available and priorities of the USFWS. We collected data on the species awaiting assessment and developed a value function that incorporates existing deadlines, taxonomic uncertainty, controversy of the species, and population and habitat data availability and quality. We used a constrained linear optimization algorithm to maximize the value function and ensure that workload capacity was not exceeded. A comparison of model scenarios indicates that imposed deadlines impact the model more than capacity constraints. Additionally, differential weighting of the metrics significantly affected the outcome of the model. In the future, elicitation of metric weights should be done routinely before the model is run for use in official planning to ensure alignment with current USFWS priorities. Output from this optimization can be used to inform a five-year work plan, allocate resources, and discuss workforce decisions. History: This paper has been accepted for the Decision Analysis Special Issue on Decision Analysis to Advance Environmental Sustainability. Funding: This work was funded via an inter-agency agreement between the USFWS and the USGS and subsequently by a Research Work Order contract between the USGS and the University of Florida [Grant G21AC00016].

EPA Proposal

EPA Proposes New Ag Herbicide Rules ‐ Q&A Six-Pack: EPA Draft Herbicide Strategy The EPA’s Draft Herbicide Strategy Framework outlines how the agency intends to provide protection for threatened and endangered species while ensuring herbicide access to users. The herbicide toolbox is about to increase for US farmers. For nearly two years, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has said it will no longer turn a blind eye toward the Endangered Species Act (ESA) and its legal obligation to ensure that pesticides do not jeopardize the continued existence of nearly 1,700 federally threatened or endangered species. In July 2023, EPA took what it believes is another step toward ESA compliance, releasing the “Draft Herbicide Strategy Framework.” The 96-page proposal outlines how the agency intends to protect more than 900 listed species and their designated critical habitats (CH) from agricultural uses of conventional herbicides in the lower 48 states. The document is available for public comment until 22 October. The draft herbicide strategy presents substantial change, requiring herbicide users to implement mitigation measures for potential impacts much earlier ‐ even before EPA or the US Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) determines definitely that a herbicide poses a risk. Here are answers to six questions about EPA’s Draft Herbicide Strategy Framework. For a quick explanation of some of the terms that EPA uses, read this post on the DTN Production Blog.

Return(s) on investment: Restoration spending in the Columbia River Basin and increased abundance of salmon and steelhead.

The decline in salmon and steelhead populations in the Columbia River Basin has been well documented, as have the decades-long, $9 billion restoration spending efforts by federal and state agencies. These efforts are mainly tied to Endangered Species Act (ESA) mandates for recovery of wild, naturally-spawning threatened or endangered fish species. The impact of these efforts remains poorly understood; many observers, including the federal courts, have long been concerned by the lack of evidence of recovery. Most studies evaluating restoration efforts have examined individual projects for specific species, reaches, or life stages, which limits the ability to make broad inferences at the basin level. There is a need to ask: is there evidence of an overall increase in wild fish abundance associated with the totality of these recovery efforts? To that end, the current study estimates fixed-effects panel regression models of adult returns of four species. Results indicate that restoration spending combined with hatchery production are associated with substantial increases in returning adult fish. Evidence of benefits to wild fish alone, however, require indirect approaches given the commingling of restoration spending with spending on hatchery releases, the impacts of spending on hatchery fish survival, and the density dependence effects of hatchery releases. To accomplish this, the models' predicted adult returns (both hatchery and wild fish) attributed to both spending and hatchery releases are compared to independent estimates of returning hatchery fish based on hatchery survival estimates (smolt-to-adult ratios). The comparison finds the model-predicted levels of adult returns due to spending and hatchery releases do not exceed the survival-rate based estimates for hatcheries alone, so that we are unable to reject the hypothesis of no benefits to wild fish from the restoration spending.

The impact of climate change on endangered plants and lichen

The Endangered Species Act (ESA) was a landmark protection for rare organisms in the United States. Although the ESA is known for its protection of wildlife, a majority of listed species are actually plants and lichen. Climate change will impact species populations globally. Already-rare species, like those listed in the ESA, are at an even higher risk due to climate change. Despite this, the risk climate change poses to endangered plants has not been systematically evaluated in over a decade. To address this gap, we modified previously existing qualitative assessment toolkits used to examine the threat of climate change in federal documentation on listed wildlife. These modified toolkits were then applied to the 771 ESA listed plants. First, we evaluated how sensitive ESA listed plants and lichens were to climate change based on nine quantitative sensitivity factors. Then, we evaluated if climate change was recognized as a threat for a species, and if actions were being taken to address the threats of climate change. We found that all ESA listed plant and lichen species are at least slightly (score of 1) sensitive to climate change, and therefore all listed plants and lichens are threatened by climate change. While a majority of ESA listing and recovery documents recognized climate change as a threat, very few had actions being taken in their recovery plans to address climate change directly. While acknowledging the threat that climate change poses to rare plants is an important first step, direct action will need to be taken to ensure the recovery of many of these species.

Factors associated with preemptive conservation under the U.S. Endangered Species Act.

In recent decades, there has been an increasing emphasis on proactive efforts to conserve species being considered for listing under the U.S. Endangered Species Act (ESA) before they are listed (i.e., preemptive conservation). These efforts, which depend on voluntary actions by public and private land managers across the species' range, aim to conserve species while avoiding regulatory costs associated with ESA listing. We collected data for a set of social, economic, environmental, and institutional factors that we hypothesized would influence voluntary decisions to promote or inhibit preemptive conservation of species under consideration for ESA listing. We used logistic regression to estimate the association of these factors with preemptive conservation outcomes based on data for a set of species that entered the ESA listing process and were either officially listed (n=314) or preemptively conserved (n=73) from 1996 to 2018. Factors significantly associated with precluded listing due to preemptive conservation included high baseline conservation status, low proportion of private land across the species' range, small total range size, exposure to specific types of threats, and species' range extending over several states. These results highlight strategies that can help improve conservation outcomes, such as allocating resources for imperiled species earlier in the listing process, addressing specific threats, and expanding incentives and coordination mechanisms for conservation on private lands.

Agency management plans also fail to address threatened species vulnerability to climate change in the US

Despite widespread evidence of climate change as a threat to biodiversity, multiple studies have suggested that government agencies are not adequately addressing this threat to imperiled species. We assessed climate sensitivity for all 197 animal species listed as threatened under the Endangered Species Act (ESA) with ranges overlapping the US and its territories. Sensitivity was determined by eight independent factors: temperature, hydrology, disturbance, isolation, injurious species, chemistry, phenology, and obligate relationships. We also reviewed documents by agencies that implement the ESA to determine whether climate change is identified as a threat to the species and/or included in management planning. We found that 99.5 % of species were sensitive to at least one factor, and the agencies considered climate change as a threat to 91 % of species, but planned management actions to address climate sensitivity for just 40 %. This adds to previous findings from an analysis of endangered animals, revealing that shortcomings persist in US imperiled species climate planning.

Exposure of juvenile Chinook salmon to effluent from a large urban wastewater treatment plant. Part 1. physiological responses

Wastewater treatment plants release complex mixtures of chemicals into the aquatic environment as wastewater effluent (WWE); however, the effects of these mixtures are still poorly understood. Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) are a culturally important species in the Pacific Northwest and are a vital food resource for southern resident killer whales (Orcinus orca) that are listed as ‘critically endangered’ under the U.S. Endangered Species Act (ESA). Chinook populations have declined drastically in this region and have failed to show significant recovery despite regional-to-federal efforts, resulting in many populations being listed as threatened under the ESA. One source of stress to juvenile Chinook is chemical pollution from WWE during their outmigration along river corridors and residency in estuaries. In this study, we investigated effects of WWE on juvenile Chinook health in a ten-day exposure to dilutions of WWE from 0.1% to 20%. At the end of the exposure, we measured endpoints associated with endocrine disruption, brain function, osmoregulation, stress, and metabolism. Exposure to WWE significantly (α = 0.1 for all analyses) induced vitellogenesis, indicating endocrine system disruption. We saw significant reductions in plasma glucose, an indication of stress, and brain Na+/K+-ATPase (NKA) activity, an enzyme essential for neuronal signaling. Lastly, metabolism was affected as evidenced by altered total protein, cholesterol, and albumin in plasma, a drastic decrease in whole body lipid content, and a significant increase in visible liver anomalies. We compared contaminant concentrations in exposure water with effects concentrations from the literature for chemicals known to induce vitellogenin or inhibit brain NKA. For most contaminants, concentrations in exposure waters were several orders of magnitude below effects concentrations in the literature. The exception was estrogenic hormones, which were detected at similar concentrations in this study compared to concentrations in other studies that induced vitellogenin. Based on comparisons to the literature, contaminants measured in this study could not explain the inhibition of brain NKA; however, WWE mixtures contain many quantified and undetected compounds that are likely acting together to cause harmful effects in Chinook. This research highlights the need for improved wastewater treatment to improve aquatic health and mitigate effects to threatened species like Puget Sound Chinook salmon.

Historical fire regimes and contemporary fire effects within sagebrush habitats of Gunnison Sage‐grouse

AbstractThe historical role of fire in sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata) landscapes remains poorly understood, yet is important to inform management and conservation of obligate species such as the threatened Gunnison Sage‐grouse (GUSG; Centrocercus minimus). We reconstructed fire histories from tree‐ring fire scars at sagebrush–forest ecotones (10 sites, 111 trees) to better understand the role of fire in sagebrush landscapes of the Upper Gunnison Basin (UGB), Colorado, and how fire may have changed following Euro‐American settlement. We assessed likely influences of historical fire by surveying plant composition and structure at 100 sagebrush sites with and without recent (2001–2020) fires. Tree‐ring fire scars revealed a history of repeated low‐severity fire at sagebrush–forest ecotones until 1892, followed by over a century without fire. Between 1684 and 1892, the mean fire interval (MFI) among sites averaged 49.6 years (ranging from 18.2 to 119 years). Fire over this period occurred synchronously at two or more sites on average every 23.6 years, potentially indicative of spread between sites. Most (70%) of the historical fires burned in the early growing season, consistent with times of strong wind. Recent burns exhibited reductions in sagebrush cover (5% vs. 25% in unburned sites) and concomitant increases in herbaceous cover (55% vs. 40%). These differences declined over time but persisted for at least two decades. Burned sites were dominated by native perennial grasses, forbs, and resprouting shrub species. Historically, such openings may have served as seasonal GUSG habitat. Our results indicate that parts of the UGB sagebrush landscapes were characterized historically by frequent fire and dynamic vegetation mosaics that included open, grassy patches. These findings support the use of prescribed fire to restore and maintain this ecological process and vegetation heterogeneity. However, the contemporary context for fire has changed and now includes substantially reduced, Endangered Species Act (ESA)‐listed GUSG populations, increased risk of non‐native plant invasion, and climate warming. These circumstances highlight new risks, information needs, and opportunities for key knowledge co‐production via management–research partnerships.

Threatened and Endangered Species Program (DOI)

Federal Grants & ContractsVolume 47, Issue 9 p. 4-4 Grants Alerts Threatened and Endangered Species Program (DOI) First published: 04 April 2023 https://doi.org/10.1002/fgc.32948Read the full textAboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL No abstract is available for this article. Volume47, Issue96 April 2023Pages 4-4 RelatedInformation

Species Survival or the “3S Method”? How the Endangered Species Act Disincentivizes Landowner Cooperation and Threatens the Species It Supposedly Saves

The Endangered Species Act (ESA) places restrictions on landowners when their property harbors endangered species. Though well-intentioned as a method of promoting species recovery, these restrictions actually have the reverse effect. Instead of accepting ESA regulations, landowners secretly eliminate endangered species from their property in what is colloquially known as “shoot, shovel, and shut up.” Collaboration between landowners and agencies is essential for species preservation. This Article illustrates the collaboration options, some within the limits of the ESA and others requiring its reform. The four options analyzed are (1) landowner peer review of species listing procedures, (2) congressional clarification of listing standards, (3) creation of a public trust for endangered species stewardship, and (4) formation of landowner-run regulatory entities with established standards reviewable by agencies.

Assessing the Reproductive Ecology of a Rare Mint, Macbridea alba, an Endangered Species Act Protected Species

Many rare plant species lack up-to-date research about their reproductive ecology, which challenges effective in situ and ex situ conservation, particularly in the face of ongoing environmental and anthropogenic changes. For protected species, outdated and incomplete information also creates barriers to successful recovery planning and delisting. In this study, we gathered a range of reproductive metrics for the federally threatened and state endangered Florida endemic mint, Macbridea alba Chapman (Lamiaceae). We collected data at seven populations within Apalachicola National Forest (Florida, USA) and conducted germination trials to estimate reproductive potential. Additionally, we observed a previously undocumented lepidopteran seed predator for the species and confirmed the occurrence of vivipary. The seed set was low with less than 20% of flowers per inflorescence producing seed across populations; however, germination was high with more than 60% of seeds germinating in five of seven populations. When comparing our results to previous research conducted more than 20 years ago, the results were similar overall (i.e., germination, vivipary); however, new information emerged (i.e., herbivore pressure). As M. alba undergoes reassessment as a potential candidate for delisting from the Endangered Species Act (ESA) list, this information is critical for assessing recovery goals and decisions regarding the species' protected status. For recovery needs related to propagation and reintroduction, these results can inform future seed collection and propagation efforts for the species.

Strategic Climate Change Litigation and the EU Habitats Directive: Squaring the Circle with the Help of the U.S. Endangered Species Act?

Abstract Against the backdrop of the rising temperatures and the existing ‘emission gap’, climate change lawsuits have recently emerged as a new lever in order to step up compliance with international reduction targets. As of today, the majority of these strategic lawsuits are based upon tort law and human rights duties, which is evident given the major impact unhalted climate change on the immediate survival chances of future generations of humans. However, many terrestrial as well as marine ecosystems are already suffering from the global rise of temperatures, also in Europe. This article addresses the principal question as to whether within the specific context of the European Union, climate change litigation could not also use the 1992 Habitats Directive as an complementary instrument to mitigate future greenhouse gas emissions or at least prepare and adapt ecosystems for the inevitable impact of climate change. Using the recent courtroom experiences with the U.S. Endangered Species Act (ESA) of 1973 in the context of climate change-related lawsuits as a benchmark, this article argues that global warming will be an increasingly important factor when applying the conservation duties of the Habitats Directive in the coming decades.

Threatened species face similar types and numbers of threats as endangered species when listed under the Endangered Species Act

AbstractWith species increasingly imperiled due to anthropogenic activities, conservation practitioners are tasked with determining conservation priorities to make the best use of limited resources. One way of setting priorities is to categorize species based on risk of extinction. The United States' Endangered Species Act (ESA) has two listing statuses into which imperiled species are placed to receive protections: threatened or endangered. Our objective was to identify differences between threatened and endangered (T&E) species beyond what is outlined in their ESA definitions. For 6 broad‐resolution threats (habitat modification, overutilization, pollution, species‐species interactions, environmental stochasticity, and demographic stochasticity), we investigated whether there is a difference in the number and types of threats which impacted T&E species at the time of their listing. We found that threatened (x̄ = 2.9, SD = 1.4) and endangered (x̄ = 3.0, SD = 1.1) species faced a similar number of threats at time of their listing. The only broad‐resolution threat that impacted endangered species more than threatened species was demographic stochasticity, with endangered species being 2.1 times (95% CI = 1.5–2.8) more likely to be impacted than threatened species. We examined demographic stochasticity by breaking it down into finer‐resolution threats to identify additional differences between T&E species. We found 4 finer‐resolution demographic stochasticity threats (few individuals in one population, few individuals in multiple populations, lack of reproduction, and genetic loss) to be strong predictors of endangered status. The similarities in the number and types of broad‐resolution threats faced by T&E species indicated that they are equally conservation reliant.

Is the Endangered Species Act living to its full potential? The reassessment of the conservation status and recovery of Macbridea alba Chapm. as a case study

Since 1988, the Cooperative Endangered Species Conservation Fund or “Section 6” fund facilitates partnerships between the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and state agencies that aim to provide data pertinent to the recovery of Endangered Species Act (ESA) protected species. Despite the success of these efforts, research for rare plants is chronically underfunded and many species experience long periods of research inactivity that hinders their conservation. One example is Macbridea alba Chapm. (white birds-in-a-nest, Lamiaceae, M. alba from hereon), a federally threatened and state endangered mint endemic to four counties within the Florida panhandle. The species is a candidate for delisting after 30 years of protection under the ESA, however a lack of up-to-date data associated with the species has continually challenged the implementation of effective conservation programs and prolonged the recovery process. The focus of this paper is to review the timeline of recovery goals for M. alba, present a summary of recent research findings (i.e., species distribution models, habitat associations, reproductive ecology), and identify achievements as well as persistent obstacles to recovery and delisting. Our research focused on 5 of 10 recovery actions listed in the recovery plan for M. alba. Our findings provide updated data and make novel contributions to the protection of M. alba that will prioritize and improve management efforts. Overall, our work highlights frequent barriers to the recovery and delisting of rare species, using an endemic plant species as a case-study. Importantly, we outline effective methods for the rapid assessment of at-risk plant species that due to enduring data gaps, face an uncertain future in listing and recovery. We hope our work provides a convincing case demonstrating the critical need for current and expanded ESA funding and encourages a diversity of individuals and institutions to participate in critical rare plant research to swiftly fill research gaps and expedite recovery of some of the rarest plant species across the United States.

Interactions between U.S. biofuels policy and the Endangered Species Act

The Renewable Fuel Standard (RFS) is the primary policy governing the use of biofuels in the United States. Following the 2007 enactment of the RFS, there has been substantial expansion in the use of cropland to produce biofuel feedstocks, including corn and soybeans. Both the conversion of land and the ongoing cultivation of these crops can, depending on management practices, lead to negative environmental outcomes including degraded water quality, increased water use, increased greenhouse gas emissions, and loss or degradation of wildlife habitat. These outcomes have the potential to affect threatened and endangered species protected under the U.S. Endangered Species Act (ESA). The ESA requires federal agencies to consult with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service or the National Marine Fisheries Service to ensure that an agency's actions are not likely to jeopardize the existence of imperiled species, nor result in the destruction or adverse modification of their habitat. However, formal consultation has not yet been completed between the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency—the agency charged with implementing the RFS—and the wildlife services, thereby hindering mitigation or remediation of potential impacts. This analysis explores the likely effects of the RFS on land use changes and critical habitat, illustrates example pathways by which threatened and endangered species may be affected, and proposes solutions to help redress this harm. The findings suggest a need for further consultation and assessment of the interactions between the RFS and ESA as well as additional research to support the species-conservation and policymaking processes.

AMYLOIDOSIS IN CAPTIVE EUROPEAN EASTERN BONGO (TRAGELAPHUS EURYCERUS ISAACI): PREVALENCE, PREDICTIVE FACTORS, ORGAN PREDILECTION, AND SERUM AMYLOID A CONCENTRATIONS.

Amyloidosis is frequently identified during postmortem examination of captive eastern bongo (Tragelaphus eurycerus isaaci) in the European Endangered Species Programme (EEP). However, its significance and etiopathogenesis are poorly understood. The objective of this study was to investigate the prevalence of amyloidosis within this population and identify potential predictive factors for the presence of disease. Postmortem reports obtained from 24 EEP institutions were analyzed and assessed for evidence of amyloidosis. Seventy-two individuals had histopathological assessment performed after gross postmortem examination and were included in the study. Further histopathological analysis was performed on Congo red-stained slides from 26 individuals, and organ predilection sites were identified. Immunohistochemical analysis was performed in six individuals to identify the type of amyloid present. Serum amyloid A (SAA) analysis was performed on blood samples from 34 individuals, and concentrations in affected and unaffected individuals were compared. Amyloidosis was reported in 26 animals (36%). The association between the presence of amyloidosis and sex, age, or body condition was not statistically significant. However, amyloidosis was not identified in any individuals under the age of 6 yr. The presence of chronic inflammatory conditions was the only statistically significant predictive factor for the presence of amyloidosis (P = 0.03). Chronic inflammatory conditions present included nephritis, enteritis, and pneumonia. The majority of affected animals presented with amyloid deposition in multiple organs, with the liver and kidneys being most commonly affected. Immunohistochemistry confirmed the presence of AA amyloid. The association between the presence of amyloidosis and SAA values measured on a single occasion was not statistically significant. This study identified a high prevalence of amyloidosis within the captive European eastern bongo population associated with chronic inflammatory conditions. Antemortem diagnosis of amyloidosis remains challenging, and this study indicates that SAA protein concentrations are not a reliable indicator for the presence of amyloidosis.

Implications of Declining Ground Water and Water Quality in the US Southeastern Coastal Plain Ecoregion and Areawide Environmental Impact Statement Required for Mining in the Greater Okefenokee Swamp Basin—Part 1

Karst aquifers occur worldwide and exhibit groundwater flow responses that differ considerably from aquifers lacking fractures, bedding planes, and other karst conduits where significant and rapid groundwater flow can occur. The regional, karst Floridan aquifer system underlies the United States (US) Southeastern Coastal Plain Physiographic Region and exhibits hydrologic interconnections with overlying surficial aquifers and throughout other zones of the aquifer system, as is characteristic of other karst aquifer systems. Anthropogenic groundwater declines in this regional karst aquifer system have been documented in published literature for decades, but the impacts of those declines in this coastal plain region and the embedded ecosystems that provide essential and critical habitat for native, endemic, and federally endangered and threatened species have not been considered previously. Those anthropogenic groundwater declines reduce surfacewater levels and flows due to the capture of both groundwater and overland flow of surfacewater, resulting in induced recharge through semi-confining zones and interbasin flow through fractures and other karst conduits. This case study identifies examples from the Greater Okefenokee Swamp Basin study area and comparison areas of how those declines result in loss of historic base flow to surface waters and other capture of surface waters, ultimately increasing saltwater intrusion. Those results alter and degrade the physical, chemical, and biological integrity of the nation’s waters, in violation of the US Clean Water Act (CWA) of 1972. Historic groundwater declines from mining and other anthropogenic groundwater withdrawals from this regional karst aquifer system already threaten the survival and recovery of federally endangered and threatened species, as well as existing and proposed critical habitat for those species within this regional extent, in violation of the Endangered Species Act (ESA) of 1973. This case study and its companion publication (Part 2) appear to be the first to provide scientific support for this regional karst aquifer system as the unifying factor in habitat responses to irreversible groundwater impacts on aquatic and marine ecosystems. These adverse impacts strongly suggest that the extent of the regional Floridan aquifer system should be designated as the Southeastern Coastal Plain Ecoregion for the purpose of managing natural resources. Mining activities continue to expand in our study area, which is the Greater Okefenokee Swamp Basin. Despite that fact, no comprehensive Areawide Environmental Impact Statement (AEIS), similar to the AEIS required for phosphate mining within the Central Florida Phosphate District (CFPD) approximately a decade ago has been conducted for any of the numerous mining projects that are occurring and are proposed within the Greater Okefenokee Swamp Basin. This case study also provides examples of why a comprehensive AEIS is essential to consider all of the adverse direct, indirect, and cumulative impacts of those mining activities to the CWA, the ESA, and the irreversible losses to local economies, because federal agencies responsible for considering those adverse impacts rely on public comments to identify those adverse impacts. The mining activities authorized throughout the regional Floridan aquifer system under Category 44 Nationwide Permits (NWP) result in the same type of adverse impacts as the mining activities evaluated under Individual Permits in that region. Therefore, those Category 44 NWP mining activities also should be required to obtain Individual Permits and be evaluated under an AEIS in the Greater Okefenokee Swamp Basin. This case study also describes how Florida’s assumption of the CWA Section 404 regulatory authority in 2020 severs four sub-basins within the Greater Okefenokee Swamp Basin study area at the state line between Florida and Georgia.

Impacts of lost fishing nets in the U.S. portion of the Salish Sea

The negative impact of lost (or derelict) gillnets on marine species and habitats has been reported for decades in the U.S. portion of the Salish Sea. Impacts of derelict nets are recognized as stressors to taxa listed under the U.S. Endangered Species Act (ESA), including rockfish and marbled murrelet. This study reports results from a concerted effort to remove derelict nets from the marine environment conducted using diver retrieval methods from 2002 through 2021. Also reported are results from a Reporting, Response, and Retrieval (RRR) Program designed to retrieve newly lost nets that was implemented in 2012. A total of 5638 unique derelict nets or portions of nets was removed. Nets measured a total of 11.6 km2. The majority of nets were recovered from habitats of boulders on sand/mud/gravel, followed by low-relief rocky substrate, and high-relief rocky substrate. Age, water depth, and suspension in the water column are reported for all nets removed. A total of 126,308 individual species impacts representing 119 unique species were documented including commercially and recreationally harvested species. The RRR Program has received 124 reports since 2012 and has proved effective at reducing re-accumulation and long-term species and habitat impacts from lost fishing nets. Recommendations to increase its effectiveness include continued outreach to fishers to encourage compliance with the mandated reporting coupled with increased penalties for not reporting. Systematic retrieval of derelict nets coupled with a program to rapidly retrieve newly lost nets could serve as a model for other coastal net fisheries.

Distribution of Helianthus paradoxus (Asteraceae) and Agalinis calycina (Orobanchaceae) on Bitter Lake National Wildlife Refuge, New Mexico, U.S.A.

Helianthus paradoxus (Asteraceae) is listed as threatened under the U.S. Endangered Species Act (ESA), and Agalinis calycina (Orobanchaceae) is currently being considered for listing under the ESA. We surveyed H. paradoxus in 2018 and A. calycina from 2018 to 2020 in order to document their distribution and abundance on Bitter Lake National Wildlife Refuge (BLNWR), New Mexico. In 2018, H. paradoxus coverage was estimated to total 41.32 ha, with approximately 12,691,116 plants, and A. calycina coverage was estimated to total 1.45 ha, with approximately 107,338 plants. Approximately 0.56 ha of A. calycina coverage, totaling about 105,073 plants, fell in areas also mapped as H. paradoxus polygons. This accounted for about 39% of the A. calycina area in 2018. No A. calycina plants were detected in 2019, and in 2020 detections were limited to individual plants. BLNWR is one of only two areas where both plants occur, but A. calycina has a far more restricted distribution on BLNWR than H. paradoxus, occurring only in wetland management units. As with prior surveys, A. calycina abundance is highly variable from year-to-year. Periodic comprehensive surveys (once every 5 years) are needed in order to access status and trends. Further, we suggest that an index be developed that can characterize germination and establishment conditions for A. calycina into good, average, and poor conditions in order to meaningfully assess long-term trends.

Recovery units under the Endangered Species Act should be used more widely

Recovering species is the main goal of the Endangered Species Act (ESA). In the face of limited conservation budgets, diverse tools are needed to efficiently recover species. Recovery units may be one such tool - designated portions of a species’ range that must be recovered individually before an entire species can be considered recovered. Recovery units allow for spatial flexibility in developing recovery goals and may be used in regulatory decisions such as ESA section 7 consultation. Despite the advantages, very little information exists on how recovery units have been developed and used. We mined available public data to determine the number and types of species for which recovery units have been designated; evaluated species and geographic characteristics associated with recovery unit designation; and examined how recovery units have been used in implementing the ESA, such as during consultation. We found 49 listed species had designated recovery units through December 2017, and that these species typically had relatively large ranges and were well-studied. We found taxonomic biases in recovery unit designation as well, with fish species being disproportionately likely to have recovery units and plants disproportionately less. These species were also more likely to have their recovery units considered and used in subsequent ESA implementation – a probability that decreased as time since unit designation passed. Improvements in recovery priority numbers among species with recovery units indicate that the theoretical benefits of this tool may have translated to improved status. These data indicate that recovery units could be applied to additional wide-ranging species to improve recovery under the ESA.