End-of-life Vehicles Directive Research Articles

Closing the loop on platinum from catalytic converters: Contributions from material flow analysis and circularity indicators

AbstractIn this study, material flow analysis (MFA) is applied to quantify and reduce the obstacles for advancing a circular economy (CE) of platinum (Pt) from catalytic converters (CC) in Europe. First, the value chain and related stakeholders are mapped out in an MFA‐like model to both facilitate the assessment of stocks and flows, and get a comprehensive view of potential action levers and resources to close‐the‐loop. Then, through the cross analysis of numerous data sources, two MFA are completed: (i) one general MFA, and (ii) one sector‐specific MFA, drawing a distinction between the fate of Pt from (a) light‐duty vehicles, under the European Union's End of Life Vehicle Directive 2000/EC/53, and (b) heavy‐duty and off‐road vehicles. Key findings reveal a leakage of around 15 tons of Pt outside the European market in 2017. Although approximately one quarter of the losses are due to in‐use dissipation, 65% are attributed to insufficient collection and unregulated exports. Comparing the environmental impact between primary and secondary production, it has been estimated that halving the leakage of Pt during usage and collection could prevent the energetic consumption of 1.3 × 103 TJ and the greenhouse gases emission of 2.5 × 102 kt CO2 eq. Through the lens of circularity indicators, activating appropriate action levers to enhance the CE performance of Pt in Europe is of utmost importance in order to secure future production of new generations of CC and fuel cells. Moreover, the growing stockpile of Pt from CC in use indicates the need for better collection mechanisms. Also, the CC attrition during use and associated Pt emissions in the environment appears non‐negligible. Based on the scarce and dated publications in this regard, we encourage further research for a sound understanding of this phenomenon that can negatively impact human health.

End‐of‐life vehicle recovery factors: Malaysian stakeholders' views and future research needs

AbstractIn this study, we identify the factors that affect end‐of‐life vehicle (ELV) recovery effectiveness in order to develop an improved ELV recovery model in Malaysia. We derived these factors from a literature survey and on‐site interviews with representatives of selected local companies who are the key stakeholders in ELV management. We used the system dynamics approach to identify the link between the ELV recovery factors and recovery effectiveness, and we present the results in the form of an aftermarket cognitive map, which provides a pictorial view of the interrelationships between the ELV recovery factors. Indeed, we found that the factors conform well with those identified in previous studies. We believe that the improved ELV recovery model will be beneficial to product designers and stakeholders in the ELV recovery network, and encourage them to take action in accordance with the National Automotive Policy in line with the ELV directive.

Comparative Study of End-of-Life Vehicle Recycling in Australia and Belgium

The increasing complexity of multi-material vehicle designs has created challenges for vehicle recycling. Many countries have implemented different end-of-life vehicles (ELVs) treatment policies and guidelines. For example, the European Commission has set recycling and recovery targets for end-of-life vehicle (ELV). This paper discusses a comparative study on the legislative boundaries and environmental performance of the current ELV recycling processes analysed between recycling companies in Australia and Belgium. It is shown that the strict implementation of the ELV Directive in Belgium has led to better environmental performance, by a factor of 7.9 in comparison to the Australian scenario. The enactment of strict ELV legislation, adoption of advanced recycling technologies, and improvement of the recycling efficiencies of revenue streams are identified as the major influencing factors for a sustainable ELV management system.

Influence of composition, amount and life span of passenger cars on end-of-life vehicles waste in Belgium: A system dynamics approach

The increasing worldwide production of passenger cars depletes natural resources and increases the number of end-of-life vehicles (ELVs) to be processed. Lack of landfill capacity and a growing scarcity of natural resources have lead to severe ELV reuse and recovery targets in the European Union (EU). This paper examines the main influencing parameters affecting the amount and composition of ELV waste originating from passenger cars to be treated in Authorized Treatment Facilities (ATFs). Moreover the effect of a changing number, composition and life span of passenger cars on the ability to meet the ambitious EU ELV Directive 2000/53/EC targets in 2015 is examined for Belgium. Using system dynamics, the aforementioned changing parameters are studied from 1990 and projected to 2030. The model results show that the total annual weight of ELV waste to be reused and recycled in Belgium is expected to grow over the coming years despite the economic downturn of 2008 and its effect on GDP growth. Moreover it shows that Belgium can sustainably achieve the ambitious EU ELV Directive 2000/53/EC targets in 2015 and thereafter if it continues to invest in waste treatment of ELV plastics. The availability of higher amounts of ELV plastics proves to be favourable to trigger investments in their reusing and recycling. We demonstrate that this can be realized by reducing export of discarded passenger cars, shortening the life span of passenger cars or shortening the time for investing in additional plastic recovery.

Life cycle assessment of innovative technology for energy production from automotive shredder residue.

Automotive Shredder Residue (ASR) is a problematic waste material remaining after shredding and recovery processes of end-of-life vehicles (ELVs). Its heterogeneous grain size and composition make difficult its recovery or disposal. Although ASR accounts for approximately 20% to 25% of the weight of an ELV, the European Union (EU)'s ELV Directive (2000/53/EC) requires that by 2015 a minimum 95% of the weight of an ELV must be reused or recovered, including a 10% weight energy recovery. The quantity of ASR is relevant: Approximately 2.4 million tons are generated in the EU each year and most of it is sent to landfills. This article describes a life cycle model of the "TEKNE-Fluff" process designed to make beneficial use of ASR that is based on the results of an experimental pilot plant for pyro-gasification, combustion, cogeneration, and emissions treatment of ASR. The goal of the research was the application of life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology to identify the environmental hot spots of the "TEKNE system" and use scenario analysis to check solutions to improve its environmental profile, supporting the design and industrialization process. The LCA was conducted based on data modeled from the experimental campaign. Moreover, different scenarios on shares of electricity and thermal energy produced by the cogeneration system and alternative treatment processes for the waste produced by the technology were compared. Despite the limitation of the research (results based on scaling up experimental data by modeling), impact assessment results are promising and sufficiently robust, as shown by Monte Carlo analysis. The TEKNE technology may become an interesting solution for the problem of ASR management: Besides representing an alternative to landfill disposal, the energy produced could avoid significant impacts on fossil resources depletion (a plant of 40,000 tons/y capacity could produce ∼ 147,000 GJ/yr, covering the annual need of ∼ 13,500 households).

Fuzzy risk explicit interval linear programming model for end-of-life vehicle recycling planning in the EU

End-of-life vehicles (ELVs) are vehicles that have reached the end of their useful lives and are no longer registered or licensed for use. The ELV recycling problem has become very serious in the last decade and more and more efforts are made in order to reduce the impact of ELVs on the environment. This paper proposes the fuzzy risk explicit interval linear programming model for ELV recycling planning in the EU. It has advantages in reflecting uncertainties presented in terms of intervals in the ELV recycling systems and fuzziness in decision makers’ preferences. The formulated model has been applied to a numerical study in which different decision maker types and several ELV types under two EU ELV Directive legislative cases were examined. This study is conducted in order to examine the influences of the decision maker type, the α-cut level, the EU ELV Directive and the ELV type on decisions about vehicle hulks procuring, storing unprocessed hulks, sorting generated material fractions, allocating sorted waste flows and allocating sorted metals. Decision maker type can influence quantity of vehicle hulks kept in storages. The EU ELV Directive and decision maker type have no influence on which vehicle hulk type is kept in the storage. Vehicle hulk type, the EU ELV Directive and decision maker type do not influence the creation of metal allocation plans, since each isolated metal has its regular destination. The valid EU ELV Directive eco-efficiency quotas can be reached even when advanced thermal treatment plants are excluded from the ELV recycling process. The introduction of the stringent eco-efficiency quotas will significantly reduce the quantities of land-filled waste fractions regardless of the type of decision makers who will manage vehicle recycling system. In order to reach these stringent quotas, significant quantities of sorted waste need to be processed in advanced thermal treatment plants. Proposed model can serve as the support for the European vehicle recycling managers in creating more successful ELV recycling plans.

Risk explicit interval linear programming model for long-term planning of vehicle recycling in the EU legislative context under uncertainty

With the number of vehicles expected to increase to 1.85 billion by 2030 and the scrap generated from end-of-life vehicles (ELVs) expected to be 3.71 billion tonnes, there is a strong motivation to properly process the flow of these materials. The EU Directive on end-of-life vehicles (EU ELV Directive) aims to increase recovery and recycling rates of ELVs in order to reduce waste and improve environmental performances. Long-term optimization planning of vehicle recycling is increasingly important. However, there is a lack of research of uncertainties in the vehicle recycling system, none of the previous studies analyzed the linkage and trade-offs between decision risk and system performances, and no previous research was reported on interval-based programming for vehicle recycling planning problem. In order to meet the imposed eco-efficiency quotas, maximize system profit and minimize decision risk, and at the same time fill the identified research gaps, a risk explicit interval linear programming model for optimal long-term planning in the EU vehicle recycling factories was developed. It can create optimal plans for procuring vehicle hulks, sorting of generated material fractions, allocation of sorted waste flows and allocation of sorted metals for desired value of the system aspiration level. A numerical study demonstrated the potentials and applicability of the proposed model. Vehicle recycling factories aim at reaching the highest possible level of quantity and quality of sorted metal flows. The future eco-efficiency quotas will not endanger their business. The success of the final phase of implementation of the EU ELV Directive is not jeopardized, because even the future eco-efficiency quotas were reached in all created test problems. Quantity of land-filled wastes will be radically reduced after January 1, 2015. The model results and trade-offs would be valuable for supporting the EU vehicle recycling factories in creating optimal long-term production strategies and reducing the risk for uncertain situations.

Modelling production processes in a vehicle recycling plant

The European Directive on end-of-life vehicles (ELVs) fundamentally changed the business philosophy of the European vehicle recycling system, which was exclusively profit-oriented. As the dominant participants of this system, vehicle recycling plants (VRPs) are especially affected by its implementation. For VRPs to successfully respond to the prescribed eco-efficiency quotas, investment will be needed to procure modern sorting equipment as well as to achieve full transformation of their production process. However, before VRPs decide to make this very important investment decision, it is necessary to determine the adequacy of such a decision in detail. Consequently, the following questions become unavoidable: Can modernly equipped VRPs conduct profitable business? Are eco-efficiency quotas actually attainable? How will the new changes in vehicle design influence VRPs? To provide answers to these essential questions, a production planning model of a modernly equipped VRP was first developed and then tested extensively using real data. Based on the answers provided by the proposed model testing analysis it was concluded that VRP transformation is not only necessary but completely justified and that the final success of the ELV Directive is realistic.

Characterization of pyrolytic oil obtained from pyrolysis of TDF (Tire Derived Fuel)

In recent years, waste utilization before disposing to the land is the most important point about waste management. Due to the increasing emphasis on recycling, related to the two European Commission Directives (EC End of Life Vehicle Directive, EC Waste Landfill Directive) affecting the management of waste tires, there is interest in the development of alternative technologies for recycling waste tires. One of them is pyrolysis. For this purpose, a fixed bed reactor was used to pyrolysis of Tire Derived Fuel (TDF) at the temperatures of 350, 400, 450, 500, 550 and 600°C with the heating rates of 5 and 35°C/min. The maximum pyrolytic oil yield (38.8wt.%) was obtained at 400°C with 5°C/min heating rate. The yield of pyrolytic oil decreased with increasing pyrolysis temperatures whereas the yield of gases increased. The fuel properties of the pyrolytic oil including higher heating value (HHV), elemental composition, flash point, viscosity, distillation and density were determined. Pyrolytic oil was characterized by fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), hydrogen nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1H NMR) and gas chromatography–mass spectroscopy (GC–MS) techniques and also, the amount of polychlorinated dibenzodioxins/polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDDs/PCDFs) and congener distribution characteristics were studied for determination of environmental effects. It was seen that the pyrolytic oils have similar fuel properties with the diesel. It was also found that pyrolytic oil contained 0.00118 I-TEQs/g at very low level. Finally, the pyrolytic oil can be evaluated for energy recovery according to Regulation on Control of Waste Oils in Turkey.

Production planning for vehicle recycling factories in the EU legislative and global business environments

End-of-life vehicles (ELVs) are a priority in the EU waste flow, and data show that as many as 6.34 million vehicles were processed in 2008. This paper focuses on the production process in a vehicle recycling factory. It presents a tactical production planning problem for vehicle recycling factories in the EU legislative and global business environments. The problem is formulated as a linear program, which provides optimal storage, processing and recovery, recycling and landfill disposal route decisions. The proposed model can not only help vehicle recycling factories improve their eco-efficiency and profitability but also answer many important questions. The present paper deals with questions regarding which costs should be set in EU member states for landfill disposal, combustion in municipal solid waste incinerators and processing in advanced thermal treatment plants so that the ELV Directive can have the most positive eco-effect on the vehicle recycling factory business. The cost increase for landfill disposal will not always reduce the quantity of disposed automobile shredder residue (ASR). The influence of the ELV Directive on the vehicle recycling factory business is analysed. Future quotas will not endanger their profitability. Comprehensive testing of the proposed model showed that the control of the recycling system efficiency should be done at the system level because it will in no way jeopardise the ELV Directive objectives.

Separating structural adhesive bonds in seconds

As a result of legislation, such as the EU End of Life Vehicles Directive (2000/53/EC), and significant pressure on costs, there is a need for a cost-effective maintenance and repair method for vehicles. The focus must be on developing an accurate, fast and, above all, non-damaging process for separating damaged components from those that remain intact. How can this be achieved?

Thermal process of fluff: Preliminary tests on a full-scale treatment plant

Until only recently fluff has been largely disposed of in controlled landfill sites. However, in Europe environmental regulations, including the EU Landfill Directive 1999/31/EC and ELV (End of Life Vehicle) Directive 2000/53/EC, have dramatically increased the pressure on all stakeholders to develop alternative solutions. As increasingly stringent legislation forces Shredder Residues (SR) to be diverted from landfilling, newly developed technologies will be in a position to compete for the market value of disposing of the waste. However, the fluff waste stream is so variable that it cannot be automatically assumed that processes developed for one type of fluff will prove to be suitable for other fluff streams. This situation has contributed towards convincing stakeholders to withhold investment funds or delay taking decisions as to how best to proceed; as a consequence, very few technologies have been fully developed on a commercial basis. It is of particular interest therefore that commercial alternatives to be used in dealing with this complex waste stream should be identified. The present paper illustrates the findings of a full-scale thermal treatment performed on SR samples obtained from various shredding plants. The outcome of the study provides an important contribution towards assessing the feasibility and reliability of the process, thus constituting a basic prerequisite for process performance evaluation. The full-scale plant, designed for the thermo-valorization of tyres, was purpose-modified to allow for fluff combustion. Three different fluff compositions (car fluff with different percentage of shredding, whites and 100% car fluff) were taken into consideration. Both the raw samples and solid products were thoroughly characterized. Combustion emissions were continuously analyzed during the test period, alternatively operating for tyre and fluff combustion. Classification of combustion residues for landfill disposal was carried out indicating only 2% (ashes) as hazardous waste. Preliminary results, obtained from a unsophisticated thermodynamic analysis of the process, indicated a value of 0.61 for energy efficiency parameter calculated in accordance with the Directive 2008/98/EC. To conclude, the thermal treatment investigated may be deemed an appropriate technique for use in managing fluff. Indeed, values obtained for all organic and inorganic contaminants released into the atmosphere were lower than legal limits prescribed, and a significant energy content was recovered from waste fractions.

End-of-Life vehicle recovery in china: Consideration and innovation following the EU ELV directive

Implementation of the EU’s end-of-life vehicle (ELV) directive eight years ago had a profound influence on China’s automotive industry, leading to the consideration of concepts such as extended producer responsibility. It also provided some impetus for ELV recycling industry developments within China. This article provides insight into current thinking within China about ELV recycling as well as vehicle recovery activities.

Free-Cutting Aluminium Alloys with Tin as Substitution for Lead

Over the past three decades, there has been an ever increasing global movement to eliminate lead and lead containing products due to their toxicity. Consequently, by the 1st of July, 2008, aluminium for machining purposes with a lead content of more than 0.4 wt.-% by weight will be prohibited by the European Union (End of Life Vehicles Directive). The aim of the investigations of the Institute of Nonferrous Metallurgy at the University of Leoben is the development of a lead-free aluminium alloy with good free-cutting machinability without a cut back in productivity and performance in end uses as well as applications. Compared to commercial trade alloys containing lead, those new ones with tin have to have similar or even better properties referring to microstructure, mechanical criteria, corrosion resistance and machinability. Grade "A" machinability performance – short and broken chips – is strived for in order to guarantee high tool feed rates and spindle speeds in connection with low cycle times and reduced machine downtimes for cleaning. Similar to the behaviour of lead, the formation of suitable chips of tin-alloyed 2030 aluminium alloy depends on the influence of inclusions on rupture mechanisms during machining. Chip breaking inclusions of tin reduce – together with other impurity and alloying elements – the cohesion of crystal grains.

Environmental regulation and innovation driving ecological design in the UK automotive industry

AbstractThe theory of ecological modernization asserts that economic and environmental goals can be integrated within a framework of industrial modernity. Its central tenet is that environmental regulation can stimulate the application of ‘clean’ technologies or techniques. Ecological modernization also contends that environmental regulation can offer business benefits from innovation through improved product design and economic performance. The EU End of Life Vehicles Directive (ELVD) reflects many of these principles, as it compels all car manufacturers to ‘take back’ and dismantle vehicles at the end of their useful lives and to remove the hazardous substances from the production process. Each component will then be either reused or recycled. The legislation forces designers to introduce ‘clean design’ and ‘design for disassembly’ practices. In light of this, we examine the impact of the directive on UK automotive component manufacturers. We find limited evidence that the EU ELVD Directive has driven product innovation beyond short‐term, incremental technological trajectories. We therefore conclude that a more radical approach, in line with the ‘dematerialization’ thesis by Dobers and Wolff (1999), is needed to generate more radical, ecological design solutions within the UK automotive industry. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd and ERP Environment.

Is European end-of-life vehicle legislation living up to expectations? Assessing the impact of the ELV Directive on ‘green’ innovation and vehicle recovery

The end-of-life vehicle (ELV) Directive in Europe aims to generate environmental gains through increased levels of vehicle recovery and a reduction in the use of hazardous substances. This paper presents an evaluation framework based on five anticipated changes that could result from the ELV Directive. These changes relate to three areas: (a) vehicle design, (b) level of ELV recovery, and (c) information provision. We evaluate the extent to which expected outcomes have materialized since the establishment of the ELV Directive. Current information provides an emerging picture of the impact of ELV legislation. We show that legislative factors and market forces have led to innovation in recycling, increased hazardous substance removal and improved information dissemination. Such actions may be sufficient to reach ELV Directive targets and could have spill-over benefits to other industries. Carmakers are also taking steps to design for recycling and for disassembly. However, movement toward design for re-use and remanufacturing seems limited. Increasing the level of re-use and remanufacturing will be a key part of moving toward sustainable vehicle production.

Is recycling technology innovation a major driver for technology shift in the automobile industry under an EU context?

A recent EU directive addresses End-of-Life Vehicles (ELV) as a waste-management problem to be faced on the basis of 'extended producer responsibility' and stipulates minimum reuse and recovery rates for end-of-life vehicles. The task of creating an economically robust recycling infrastructure involves a significant effort to develop systems and procedures that will have to meet requirements established by the ELV directive. In particular, recent innovations in automotive-shredder residue-separation technologies and subsequent materials recycling are a candidate to constitute an alternative strategy to classic component-dismantling procedures. This paper makes use of a systems dynamics model, applied to the Portuguese ELV-processing infrastructure, to evaluate how current practices under different recycling strategies depend on recycled materials markets and on car composition. The main objective is to discuss how far recycling technology innovation can be a major driver for technology shift in the automobile industry.

Value from shredder waste: Ongoing limitations in the UK

Shredder residue is the residue from the shredding of end-of-life vehicles and white goods, after removal of the main metals. Approximately 850,000 tonnes of shredder waste is produced in the UK each year, and historically sent to landfill. Due to European legislation such as the End-of-Life Vehicle (ELV) Directive and the Landfill Directive there is pressure to minimise this waste through recycling and recovery. In this paper, primary data are presented showing that 40% of materials are potentially recoverable in the coarser fraction of UK automotive shredder residue (>30 mm). Barriers to such recycling are discussed in the context of several recent drivers, including this waste's possible reclassification as hazardous. The lack of full and timely implementation of the ELV Directive in the UK has made it an ineffective driver, and it is now unlikely that its 2006 recycling targets will be met as intended.

Abandoned vehicles in England: Impact of the End of Life Directive and new initiatives, on Likely Future Trends

Numbers of abandoned vehicles in England have grown rapidly over the past 10 years. In 2001/2002, over 290 000 vehicles were reported abandoned. This paper examines how the abandoned vehicle problem is likely to develop in the future with the introduction of new laws and initiatives, after first establishing the current situation and the causes of abandoned vehicles. There are four main factors which seem likely to have created the conditions for the problem to grow. These are: the substantial decline in the price of scrap metal; weaknesses in the vehicle licensing and registration system; growth in the pool of cheap, second-hand vehicles; and increased motoring costs. In the near future, implementation of the End of Life Vehicles Directive (ELVD) is likely to push up numbers of abandoned vehicles even further, since this will increase the cost of legitimate vehicle disposal. At the same time, initiatives introduced both by central government and by local authorities should help to slow the upward trend in numbers of abandoned vehicles. These initiatives include increased enforcement against untaxed vehicles, continuous registration, surrender schemes for end of life vehicles and rapid removal of abandoned vehicles. The current research suggests that if all measures to counter abandoned vehicles are effectively implemented, it is possible that the number of vehicles abandoned per annum will rise to approximately 400 000 in 2007. However, a more realistic projection, based on the assumption that new loopholes will be found by motorists determined to dump their vehicles, suggests that the number of abandoned vehicles in 2007 could be around 560 000 i.e. about double the current number. From 2007 onwards under the ELVD, vehicle manufacturers will become responsible for vehicle disposal costs. It is hoped that the problem of abandoned vehicles will start to decline from this date.

A review of the UK metals recycling industry.

This paper reviews the volatile nature of the price of recycled metals over the past decade and examines legislative and fiscal drivers that have affected the industry. Results from this study have shown that the UK scrap metals markets are presently seeing some of the lowest scrap prices for nearly a decade for both ferrous and non-ferrous metals, in many cases halving in value in less than a year. Scrap metals and other recycled materials prices were high in 1994-96, which have since fallen back to more traditional low levels. World recessions and the steady decline of the UK manufacturing and engineering sectors have effected prices. With tougher new Government legislation, such as the Climate Change Levy and the proposed End of Life Vehicles Directive, small and medium sized scrap merchants are finding it increasingly difficult to compete.