End Of Breastfeeding Research Articles

Effect of sucking characteristics on breast milk creamatocrit.

One of the problems in the care of healthy children is that mothers often give infant formulae to their normally growing infants in the first 4 months of life because they believe that they are unable to satisfy them. However, the association of fat content in breast milk with the sucking pattern of the infant is not clearly known. In order to determine whether the fat concentration of human milk was associated with sucking characteristics of the infants, 80 healthy 2-month-old babies and their mothers were included in the study. Milk creamatocrit was assessed at the beginning, at the first, fifth and 10th minutes and at the end of breast feeding. The creamatocrit values increased as the time elapsed from the beginning of breast feeding. There was an inverse relationship between milk volume and creamatocrit at both the beginning and the end of breast feeding (P < 0.05). The mean milk volume was higher and the mean creamatocrit at the end of breast feeding was lower in the infants whose 2-month weight gain was higher than the 75th percentile (75P) compared with those whose 2-month weight gain was lower than the 25th percentile (25P) (for milk volume 105 +/- 36 mL vs. 76 +/- 30 mL, respectively, P < 0.05; and for creamatocrit value 11.4 +/- 4.0 vs. 14.3 +/- 3.8, respectively, P < 0.05). Milk volume is the most important factor affecting weight gain of exclusively breast-fed babies, and fat concentration of human milk is not a primary determining factor in individual differences in weight gain of the infants and appears to be secondary to factors such as number of feeds per day, duration of breast feeding and the volume of milk sucked.

Negotiating Breast-Feeding: Pakistani Women, White Women and their Experiences in Hospital and at Home

Breast-feeding is a socially constructed and socially controlled practice, and the social factors which influence it have been much debated. This paper argues that a model of breast-feeding as a socially negotiated project can develop fresh insights into how women breast-feed, through focusing on women's own points of view, and on the role of health professionals. Data from a research study of women from diverse ethnic and class backgrounds are discussed. It is argued that breast-feeding women in hospital are generally subordinate to professionals, but remain active in the negotiation of breast-feeding. At home, health visitor support is especially significant. Breast-feeding appears to be a lonely struggle, and the end of breast-feeding is felt to be stimulated by outside influences. Successful breast-feeding projects are most likely for white, middle class women who have effective stocks of knowledge, and can negotiate concerted action with health professionals. Women belonging to socially excluded groups have greater difficulty in the negotiation process, and their breast-feeding projects are less likely to be successful. Whilst influenced by patterns of constraint, breast-feeding projects also show marked individuality. In conclusion, it is argued that the conceptualisation of breast-feeding as a negotiated project promises to improve sociological understanding, but that further research is needed.

Beliefs and practices in infant feeding among the Wagogo of Chigongwe (Dodoma rural district), Tanzania. II. Weaning.

Data on weaning among the Wagogo, Chigongwe village, Tanzania, are analyzed with respect to the distinction between weaning as a process and weaning as complete cessation of breastfeeding. Time of weaning in this population depends on the infant's appetite or breastmilk insufficiency, whereas the end of breastfeeding is associated with the infant's maturity or a new pregnancy. The onset of weaning and the end of lactation are subjected to several practices and behaviours. The mother believes her child eats when it is hungry, so she does not force it to eat; only the child itself knows when it is hungry and when it is full. These beliefs play important roles in determining nutritional status and growth patterns of children. Furthermore, what a mother thinks is “good” food for her child has an effect on daily diet and consequently on the child's development.

Birthspacing and Abstinence in Sub-Saharan Africa

Taboos on postpartum intercourse are common in sub-Saharan Africa but there is a great deal of variation in the duration of the abstinence period between different areas and peoples. Many Muslims interpret Koranic tradition as imposing abstinence for 40 days. In East Africa the abstinence period typically lasts between 40 days and 1 year. Among non-Muslims in western and central Africa abstinence frequently lasts for more than 1 year. The Yoruba of Nigeria often abstain from postpartum intercourse for as long as 3 years or 6 months after the end of breastfeeding. The practice is most likely to be encountered in cultures where the conjugal link is weak where polygyny is practiced and where the extended family prevails. It is difficult to think of the practice as a deliberate means to bring about the long intervals between births that are common in the region. In many African societies the practice exists because of the belief that various childhood diseases are caused by the early resumption of intercourse after a birth. Some Africans think that sperm can enter a womans bloodstream and poison her milk doing harm to her suckling child. And moreover since the period of abstinence is generally exceeded by the breastfeeding period lactational amenorrhea generally makes duplicative the protection from pregnancy offered by abstinence. As the forces of modernization and urbanization gain ground the practice of postpartum abstinence can be expected to decline. The acceptance of modern contraceptives by Africans may depend on the extent to which they are viewed as preventing the entrance of sperm into a womans bloodstream and the pollution of her milk.

Incidence of pregnancy during lactation in 500 cases

A study of the time and occurrence of pregnancy during the lactating period in 500 lactating mothers has been made to determine to what extent breast feeding protects the mother, as a natural means, in the spacing of children, to regain her health and strength, before assuming another pregnancy.Among the 500 pregnancies studied, there were 46 cases in which a pregnancy occurred during lactation. This was 9.2 per cent of 500 pregnancies. Twenty-eight cases, or 60.87 per cent, occurred after the ninth month of breast feeding, and 18 cases, or 39.13 per cent, occurred within from four to eight months, with very few cases occurring in the earlier months. It was noted that in 40 cases out of the 46, or 86.96 per cent, pregnancy occurred during the last few months of breast feeding, or when the process of weaning usually takes place. This information indicates that although pregnancy occurred during lactation, it occurred at a time when the mother and baby, in most instances, did not need the protection afforded by breast feeding.Among the 454 cases, or 91.8 per cent, of the 500 pregnancies studied, the interval between the end of breast feeding and the next conception was, for the most part, extremely short. In 185 cases, or 40.76 per cent, the interval was less than two months. A total of 246 cases, or 54.20 per cent, had an interval of less than four months; 102 cases, or 22.47 per cent, had an interval of five to nine months. This amounted to more than three-fourths of the cases, or 76.67 per cent. The remainder, 51 cases, or 11.23 per cent, had an interval of 10 to 14 months; and 55 cases, or 12.10 per cent, had an interval of 15 to 39 months.Two types of borderline cases were considered, because of the uncertainty as to the exact date of conception, and the uncertainty as to the exact date when lactation ended in terms of complete months. In the second type, it may be stated that there was a greater certainty in placing these cases in their respective categories because of the longer interval of time, and also because of the weaning process which is almost complete in the last two weeks of breast feeding, or where breast feeding was considered ended in terms of complete months. Thus, consideration was given to the date of conception within the first two weeks after breast feeding ended, thus allowing ample time for any discrepancy as to the exact date of conception.