End Facet Research Articles

RAMAN SCATTERING AND GAIN IN SILICON-ON-INSULATOR NANOWIRE WAVEGUIDES

Raman scattering in air-covered and SiO2 -covered Silicon-on-insulator waveguides of 1.25 cm length, 220 nm height and two widths of 2 μm or 0.45 μm was investigated. A continuous wave (CW) Raman fiber laser at 1454.8 nm with linewidth of <0.1 nm was used as a pump source. The coupling efficiency was estimated to be around 10% for one end facet. Spontaneous Raman shift of 521 cm-1 (1574.2 THz) scattering was observed at 1573.8 nm for SOI waveguides in air and 1574.2 nm for waveguides covered with SiO2 at pump power of <1.5 mW inside both waveguides of 2 and 0.45 μm. Anti-Stokes scattering was observed at 1352.8 nm with pump power of 16 mW. The stimulated Raman gain was calculated from spontaneous Raman efficiency. Total Raman on-off gain was determined to be 0.6 dB for waveguide with width of 2 μm and 1 dB for waveguide with width of 0.45 μm.

Smooth Surfaces with High Accuracies

AbstractOptical silicon‐on‐insulator (SOI) waveguides were scored by a femtosecond laser. Cleaving method leads to smooth facet surface of air covered SOI waveguides. The prepared end facets were investigated using an atomic force microscope and scanning electron microscopy. The roughness average of the prepared end facets of silicon waveguides was measured to be 0.25 nm.

Lateral distributed-feedback gratings for single-mode, high-power terahertz quantum-cascade lasers

We report on terahertz quantum-cascade lasers (THz QCLs) based on first-order lateral distributed-feedback (lDFB) gratings, which exhibit continuous-wave operation, high output powers (>8 mW), and single-mode emission at 3.3-3.4 THz. A general method is presented to determine the coupling coefficients of lateral gratings in terms of the coupled-mode theory, which demonstrates that large coupling strengths are obtained in the presence of corrugated metal layers. The experimental spectra are in agreement with simulations of the lDFB cavities, which take into account the reflective end facets.

A Miniaturized Sensor Consisting of Concentric Metallic Nanorings on the End Facet of an Optical Fiber

A polarization-independent optical sensor is created by fabricating a concentric gold ring grating with a period of 900 nm on the end facet of an optical fiber. The sensing function of this miniaturized device is realized by sending white light as a probe to the gold rings and collecting the response signal in the back-reflection through the optical fiber. A pronounced peak due to the Rayleigh anomaly of the gold ring grating is observed in the reflection spectrum, the center wavelength of which is sensitive to the change in the environmental refractive index of the fiber end facet. Theoretical analysis not only shows excellent agreement with the experimental results, but also gives insights into the mechanisms of this kind of sensor. Using the center position of the Rayleigh peak as the response signal, a high sensitivity dλ/dn of 900 nm per unity refractive index is realized for this sensor and a resolution of Δn/n ≈ 1% is demonstrated in preliminary experiments. The sensitivity is solely determined by the period of the grating.

CATALYST-FREE GAN NANOWIRES AS NANOSCALE LIGHT EMITTERS

Catalyst-free growth of GaN nanowires with molecular beam epitaxy produces material of exceptionally high quality with long minority-carrier lifetimes and low surface recombination velocity. The nanowires grow by thermodynamic driving forces that enhance the sticking coefficient of incoming reagents to the end facets of the nanowire while inhibiting growth on the m-plane sidewalls. Photoluminescence (PL) studies confirm that the material is essentially free of detrimental chemical impurities and crystalline defects. The nanowires are readily excited to lasing with modest optical pump power. Recent progress in methods for selective epitaxy has made it possible to control both the diameter and placement of the nanowires. Despite the high material quality, the energy-conversion efficiency of single nanowire LEDs remains low. The primary limitation appears to be optimizing the p-type doping with Mg , which is both a growth and a measurement problem.

Photonic crystal cavity on optical fiber facet for refractive index sensing

Using a micromanipulation technique, a planar photonic crystal nanocavity made from a thin semiconductor membrane is released from the host semiconductor and attached to the end facet of a standard single-mode optical fiber. The cavity spectrum can be read out through the fiber by detecting the photoluminescence of embedded quantum dots. The modified fiber end serves as a fiber-optic refractive index sensor.

Deep Subwavelength Spatial Characterization of Angular Emission from Single-Crystal Au Plasmonic Ridge Nanoantennas

We use spatially and angle-resolved cathodoluminescence imaging spectroscopy to study, with deep subwavelength resolution, the radiation mechanism of single plasmonic ridge antennas with lengths ranging from 100 to 2000 nm. We measure the antenna's standing wave resonances up to the fifth order and measure the dispersion of the strongly confined guided plasmon mode. By directly detecting the emitted antenna radiation with a 2D CCD camera, we are able to measure the angular emission patterns associated with each individual antenna resonance. We demonstrate that the shortest ridges can be modeled as a single point-dipole emitter oriented either upward (m = 0) or in-plane (m = 1). The far-field emission pattern for longer antennas (m > 2) is well described by two interfering in-plane point dipoles at the end facets, giving rise to an angular fringe pattern, where the number of fringes increases as the antenna becomes longer. Taking advantage of the deep subwavelength excitation resolution of the cathodoluminescence technique, we are able to determine the antenna radiation pattern as a function of excitation position. By including the phase of the radiating dipoles into our simple dipole model, we completely reproduce this effect. This work demonstrates how angle-resolved cathodoluminescence spectroscopy can be used to fully determine the emission properties of subwavelength ridge antennas, which ultimately can be used for the design of more complex and efficient antenna structures.

In situ gas sensing using a remotely detectable probe with replaceable insert

We demonstrate a spectroscopic gas sensor using an optical fiber probe with a replaceable insert. The probe consists of a hollow-core photonic bandgap fiber (HC-PBGF) with a core diameter of 10.9 μm and a glass tube where a 2-μm hollow core fiber (HCF) with a gold coated end facet can be inserted. The HCF is designed to function as both a gate where gases can enter the HC-PBGF and a mirror reflecting the guided light back to the HC-PBGF. The opposite distal end of the probe is also designed to be able to regulate the gas pressure within the HC-PBGF for a high gas flow rate, while still transmitting the reflected light to the analysis instrument. The remote sensing probe, we believe, has much potential for detecting gases in hazardous environments.

FACET PREPARATION OF SILICON NANO-WAVEGUIDES BY CLEAVING THE SOI CHIP

Optical facet preparation of silicon-on-insulator (SOI) waveguides was done by polishing after saw dicing or cleaving after two different techniques of scoring by a mechanical saw and fs-laser. Cleaving after fs-laser scoring leads to smooth facet surface of air covered SOI waveguides; polishing after dicing is more efficient with SiO2covered waveguides. The prepared end facets were investigated using an atomic force microscope (AFM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The SOI waveguides were characterized by optical transmission of telecommunication wavelength (1.5 μm).

Cavity enhanced stimulated Brillouin scattering in an optical chip for multiorder Stokes generation

We report the first demonstration of on-chip cascaded stimulated Brillouin scattering (SBS). Cascaded SBS is characterized in a 4 cm long chalcogenide (As₂S₃) rib waveguide where the end facet reflections provide a monolithic Fabry-Perot (FP) resonator. The presence of the FP cavity reduces the Brillouin gain threshold, which enables observation of cascaded SBS at reduced pump powers. We observe up to three orders of Stokes waves in the backscattered signal at a coupled peak power of 1.34 W. Anti-Stokes waves due to four-wave mixing between the pump and the Stokes wave were observed in the forward spectrum.

Selective filling of photonic crystal fibers using focused ion beam milled microchannels

We introduce a versatile, robust, and integrated technique to selectively fill fluid into a desired pattern of air holes in a photonic crystal fiber (PCF). Focused ion beam (FIB) is used to efficiently mill a microchannel on the end facet of a PCF before it is spliced to a single-mode fiber (SMF). Selected air holes are therefore exposed to the atmosphere through the microchannel for fluid filling. A low-loss in-line tunable optical hybrid fiber device is demonstrated by using such a technique.

Formation of Ag 2S nanowires and Ag 2S/CdS heterostructures via simple solvothermal route

In our present work, Ag 2S nanowires and Ag 2S/CdS heterostructures have been successfully prepared in anhydrous ethanol through a simple solvothermal route. From the transmission electron microscopy (TEM) analysis, it is found that the factors influenced the final product are the concentration of Ag +, reaction temperature, reaction time, and solvent. Ag 2S nanowires are formed by complete Ag + cation exchange. Because of the selectivity for partial cation exchange, the reaction starts preferentially at the ends of the CdS nanowires to produce novel Ag 2S/CdS heterostructures. In addition, as the two end facets of wurtzite CdS nanowires are crystallographically nonequivalent, the produced Ag 2S/CdS heterostructures are asymmetric.

Note: Optical fiber milled by focused ion beam and its application for Fabry-Pérot refractive index sensor

We introduce a highly compact fiber-optic Fabry-Pérot refractive index sensor integrated with a fluid channel that is fabricated directly near the tip of a 32 μm in diameter single-mode fiber taper. The focused ion beam technique is used to efficiently mill the microcavity from the fiber side and finely polish the end facets of the cavity with a high spatial resolution. It is found that a fringe visibility of over 15 dB can be achieved and that the sensor has a sensitivity of ~1731 nm/RIU (refractive index units) and a detection limit of ~5.78 × 10(-6) RIU. This miniature integrated all-in-fiber optofludic sensor may find use in minimal-invasive biomedical applications.

Subwavelength plasmonic lens patterned on a composite optical fiber facet for quasi-one-dimensional Bessel beam generation

We demonstrate a beam shaping method by engraving plasmonic lens consisted of subwavelength slit-metallic groove structure on the cleaved end facet of a composite optical fiber. The fiber consisted of a single mode optical fiber serially concatenated with a coreless silica fiber segment to expand the beam diameter. The subwavelength slit-groove structure on a gold film was fabricated using focused ion beam milling process. Plasmonic interaction in the film generated a quasi-one-dimensional Bessel-like beam with a beam width of 0.8 μm at the focal length of 2 μm. Detailed two- and three-dimensional finite-difference time-domain analyses showed beam characteristics consistent with experimental observations.

Plasmonically enhanced optical transmission through a metalized nanostructured photonic crystal fiber taper

A subwavelength holey plasmonic structure was proposed by adiabatically tapering a photonic crystal fiber (PCF) and subsequently metalizing the cleaved end facet. By coupling a white light into the PCF side, we experimentally observed an enhanced optical transmission in the spectral domain through the plasmonic structure at the tapered end. We further showed numerically that the proposed device renders a focused directional beam, due to its Fresnel-zone-like configuration and the plasmonic lensing effects.

Model for reflection and transmission matrices of nanowire end facets

Nanowires show a large potential for various electro-optical devices, such as light emitting diodes, solar cells, and nanowire lasers. We present a method developed to calculate the modal reflection and transmission matrix at the end facets of a waveguide of arbitrary cross-section, resulting in a generalized version of the Fresnel equations. The reflection can be conveniently computed using fast Fourier transforms once the waveguide modes are known. We demonstrate that the reflection coefficient is qualitatively described by two main parameters: the modal field confinement and the average Fresnel reflection of the plane waves constituting the waveguide mode.

Realization of spectrally engineered semiconductor Fabry-Perot lasers with narrow geometrical tolerances

Spectrally engineered semiconductor Fabry-Perot laser resonators are designed to enhance the optical feedback for selected longitudinal modes, which thereby require less gain for lasing. This is achieved by introducing refractive index perturbations along the length of the resonator. However, the physical realization of these resonators is a challenge because of very narrow tolerances; in particular the need for precise positioning of the end facets of the resonator in relation to the perturbations, and the excess propagation loss associated with the perturbations, has been a major concern. We report on a method to achieve high-quality end facet mirrors enabling precise positioning relative to the perturbations, the latter which are realized as lateral corrugations of the waveguide. Measurements show that the mirror quality is comparable to that of cleaved mirrors and that the additional loss introduced by the perturbations adds.10 cm−1 to the overall propagation loss, provided that the perturbations are densely enough spaced along the resonator. This implies that the number of perturbations should be large, which is beneficial for the realization of strongly perturbed resonators enabling the most flexible engineering of the spectral properties of the laser.

Characteristics of stand-alone microlenses in fiber-based fluorescence imaging applications

Microlens-ended fibers, which have found tremendous interest in the recent past, find potential biomedical applications, in particular, in endoscopic imaging. The work presented in this paper focuses on the stand-alone microlenses along with custom-fabricated specialty optical fiber, such as imaging fiber, for probe imaging applications. Stand-alone self-aligned microlenses have been fabricated employing microcompression molding and then attached at the end facet of imaging fiber. A detailed characterization of the fabricated microlens is carried and it demonstrates appropriate focusing ability, high fluorescence collection efficiency and imaging ability for biomedical applications. The surface roughness of the microlens is found to be 25 nm with a minimum spot size of 38 μm. The probe imaging system is found to be able to image the fluorescence microspheres of 10 μm size. The collection efficiency of the fiber probe with lens found to be enhanced by three times approximately.

A reflection-based localized surface plasmon resonance fiber-optic probe for biochemical sensing

We report the fabrication and characterization of an optical fiber biochemical sensing probe based on localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) and spectra reflection. Ordered array of gold nanodots was fabricated on the optical fiber end facet using electron-beam lithography (EBL). We experimentally demonstrated for the first time the blue shift of the LSPR scattering spectrum with respected to the LSPR extinction spectrum, which had been predicted theoretically. High sensitivity [195.72 nm/refractive index unit (RIU)] of this sensor for detecting changes in the bulk refractive indices has been demonstrated. The label-free affinity bio-molecules sensing capability has also been demonstrated using biotin and streptavidin as the receptor and the analyte.

Grating coupled optical waveguide interferometer for label-free biosensing

A phase shifting optical waveguide interferometer is demonstrated for label-free evanescent wave biosensing in aqueous solutions. In the proposed configuration, the reference and measurement arms of the interferometer are combined inside an integrated optical Ta 2O 5 waveguide using an ion implanted grating. Biomolecules adsorbing on the waveguide surface shift the phase in the measurement arm, which is modulated at the same time by a periodically relaxing liquid crystal phase modulator. It is demonstrated that by analyzing the periodic intensity response at the end facet of the waveguide, the phase shifts in the measurement arm can be monitored in real-time with a precision of 10 −4 rad. The high phase resolution allows the detection of surface adsorbed molecule densities below 1 pg/mm 2 without using any labeling or on-chip referencing. The instrument performance is demonstrated by monitoring in situ protein adsorption and affinity binding of low molecular weight pure biotin to an immobilized avidin layer.